Timeline (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Timeline

This timeline charts the development, escalation, and resolution of the Cold War from its ideological origins in 1917 through to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The events demonstrate how superpower rivalry shaped international relations, provoked regional conflicts, and drove both confrontation and cooperation between East and West.

Pre-Cold War context (1917-1945)

The roots of Cold War tensions preceded the 1945 Allied victory. The October Revolution of 1917 established the world's first communist state in Russia, creating an ideological divide between Soviet socialism and Western capitalism that would define the post-war era. During the Second World War, this ideological opposition temporarily gave way to pragmatic alliance.

In 1939, the Nazi-Soviet Pact revealed Stalin's willingness to cooperate with Hitler temporarily, shocking Western powers. Two years later, in 1941, Germany's invasion of the USSR forced Stalin into alliance with Britain and the United States, forming the Grand Alliance. This coalition proved militarily effective but politically fragile.

Truman succeeded Roosevelt as US President in 1945, bringing a harder line towards Soviet expansion that would define American Cold War policy.

Origins of the Cold War (1945-1949)

Post-war Europe divided rapidly along ideological lines. In 1947, Truman articulated his Truman Doctrine, pledging American support for nations resisting communist pressure, initially applied to Greece and Turkey. The Marshall Plan, announced simultaneously, offered substantial economic aid to rebuild Western European economies and reduce communism's appeal. The Soviet Union rejected Marshall aid and forbade Eastern European states from accepting it.

Communist parties seized control across Eastern Europe. In 1948, Communist forces took power in Czechoslovakia through a coup, alarming Western governments. That same year, Stalin imposed the Berlin Blockade, closing land routes to West Berlin in an attempt to force Western powers out of the city. The Western response—the Berlin Airlift—supplied West Berlin by air for nearly a year, demonstrating resolve without military confrontation.

By 1949, Europe's division hardened. The Western powers established the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as a collective defence alliance. Germany formally split into the Federal Republic of Germany (West) and the German Democratic Republic (East). In Asia, Mao Zedong's communists triumphed in China's civil war, establishing the People's Republic and shifting the global balance.

Cold War escalation (1950-1962)

The 1950s witnessed the Cold War's spread from Europe to Asia and the intensification of superpower rivalry. In 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, prompting UN intervention led by the United States. This marked the first major proxy war where the superpowers fought indirectly through allied states. Senator Joseph McCarthy began his anti-communist investigations in America, claiming widespread communist infiltration. Eisenhower became US President in 1953, the same year Stalin died, creating leadership transitions in both superpowers.

That same year, Britain, France, and Israel seized the Suez Canal, but withdrew under American and Soviet pressure, demonstrating superpower dominance over traditional colonial powers. Eisenhower unveiled his doctrine in 1957, offering economic and military aid to Middle Eastern nations resisting communism. Two years later, Fidel Castro's revolution established a communist government in Cuba, placing a Soviet ally ninety miles from American shores.

The Paris Summit (1960) collapsed after the USSR shot down an American U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory. Kennedy became US President in 1961, immediately facing a failed CIA operation—the Bay of Pigs invasion—which attempted to overthrow Castro. Later that year, East Germany began constructing the Berlin Wall, physically sealing the division between East and West Berlin. The Vienna Summit (1962) between Kennedy and Khrushchev produced no agreements.

Kennedy's assassination in November 1963 brought Lyndon Johnson to the presidency.

Coexistence and conflict (1963-1972)

The Cuban Missile Crisis prompted both superpowers to seek mechanisms for managing rivalry. However, competition continued through proxy conflicts and arms racing. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing expanded American military involvement in Vietnam. That year also saw Brezhnev replace Khrushchev as Soviet leader.

In 1968, North Vietnam launched the Tet Offensive, demonstrating communist strength and eroding American public support for the war. Brezhnev announced his doctrine claiming Soviet authority to intervene in socialist states threatening the communist bloc. This Brezhnev Doctrine justified previous actions and warned against reform movements.

In 1970, Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution as American public opinion turned against the war. Salvador Allende's election as Chilean president in 1970 marked Latin America's first democratically elected Marxist head of state.

Nixon visited China in 1972, exploiting Sino-Soviet tensions to improve American diplomatic position. The SALT I agreement (1972) limited strategic nuclear weapons, representing the first successful arms control treaty between the superpowers. In 1973, the USA and North Vietnam signed a ceasefire agreement, ending direct American military involvement. That same year, Chilean General Augusto Pinochet seized power in a coup that overthrew Allende, with CIA involvement.

Détente (1972-1979)

The mid-1970s represented détente's peak, characterized by increased dialogue and agreements. Nixon resigned in 1974 over the Watergate scandal, and Gerald Ford succeeded him. The Helsinki Accords (1975) recognized post-war European borders and included provisions for human rights, which dissidents later used to challenge communist governments. Ford visited China, continuing diplomatic engagement.

Jimmy Carter became US President in 1977, emphasizing human rights in foreign policy. In 1979, Margaret Thatcher became British Prime Minister, bringing a more confrontational approach towards the Soviet Union. The SALT II agreement (1979) continued arms limitation efforts, though the US Senate never ratified it.

Second Cold War (1979-1985)

The 1980s began with renewed confrontation often called the "Second Cold War." The Solidarity trade union emerged in Poland in 1980, challenging communist authority and inspiring resistance movements across Eastern Europe. Ronald Reagan became US President in 1981, describing the USSR as an "evil empire" and pursuing military buildup to pressure the Soviet system.

Yuri Andropov became Soviet leader in 1982 following Brezhnev's death. Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) in 1983, proposing a space-based missile defence system that threatened Soviet nuclear deterrence and forced costly counter-measures. When a Soviet military plane shot down Korean Air Lines Flight 007 that year, killing all 269 people aboard, tensions escalated further.

Konstantin Chernenko briefly led the USSR in 1984 before Mikhail Gorbachev became leader in 1985. The Geneva Summit (1985) marked the first meeting between Reagan and Gorbachev, beginning a new phase of superpower relations that would ultimately end the Cold War.

End of the Cold War (1985-1991)

Gorbachev's reforms transformed Soviet domestic and foreign policy. He introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) to revitalize the Soviet system, but these reforms ultimately accelerated its collapse. The Reykjavik Summit (1986) nearly produced an agreement eliminating all nuclear weapons. In 1987, the INF Treaty eliminated intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe, representing the first agreement actually reducing nuclear arsenals rather than merely limiting growth.

The Moscow Summit (1988) continued dialogue, while Gorbachev announced his "Sinatra Doctrine", renouncing the Brezhnev Doctrine and allowing Eastern European states to choose their own paths—letting them "do it their way." This policy shift had immediate consequences.

In 1989, Soviet troops withdrew from Afghanistan after a costly decade-long war that had drained Soviet resources and morale. In 1990, Lithuania declared independence from the Soviet Union, beginning the USSR's disintegration. By 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved, ending the Cold War. Fifteen independent republics emerged from the former Soviet state, with Russia as the largest successor state.

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