The Ending of Cold War Tensions in the Americas: Nicaragua, El Salvador and Cuba (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Ending of Cold War Tensions in the Americas: Nicaragua, El Salvador and Cuba
US policy changes in Central America
As the Cold War approached its conclusion, the United States formulated strategies to reduce its direct involvement in Central America. The region no longer held the same strategic importance it once possessed. This policy shift sent a clear message to right-wing regimes and their military defenders that they could no longer depend on automatic US support and aid. The approaching collapse of the communist bloc similarly forced left-wing guerrilla movements in Central America to reconsider their positions and pursue negotiated settlements rather than continued armed struggle.
Throughout the Cold War years, the United States had propped up over 24 governments across the region. The primary objective had been to ensure pro-US governments remained in power whilst marginalising communist influence. The United States had sustained right-wing dictatorships, offering support to any regime that declared itself anti-communist. Even the most repressive governments received backing from the US government, which supplied their militaries with training and armaments.
By the start of the 1990s, the United States aimed to strengthen its network of regional institutions. For Latin America, this translated into establishing and developing closer economic connections and revitalising the Organisation of American States – an organisation created in 1948 in Bogotá, Colombia, for the purposes of international solidarity, most successful in promoting social and economic cooperation. The US strategy centred on fostering democracies and enabling market economies to flourish.
Nicaragua
During the late 1980s, the Contras – anti-government guerrilla forces – experienced a reduction in funding from the United States. Nevertheless, the Contras negotiated a ceasefire with the Sandinista regime. Though the Contras maintained their armed status, the Sandinistas consented to hold elections on 25 February 1990. The Sandinistas anticipated an easy victory given their control of the government apparatus and the treasury. This expectation, combined with the belief that the Contras posed a continuing threat, convinced the Sandinistas that stability and economic recovery could not be accomplished without aligning with US objectives.
Through US influence, 14 Sandinista opposition parties were persuaded to unite behind a single presidential candidate. Violeta Chamorro, widow of a journalist and publisher who had been murdered by a right-wing leader for his opposition to the regime, emerged as a popular choice. Her countrymen held her in high regard, and she enjoyed pro-American sympathies. She secured over $7 million in financial backing from the USA, though Venezuela also provided substantial support. The USA's influence proved instrumental in Chamorro's electoral victory, though it was not the sole factor determining the outcome.
By 1990 the Nicaraguan population had endured 11 years of civil war. Committed to establishing peace, Chamorro and the Contras pledged to end the fighting. The Sandinistas withdrew from opposition, thereby concluding the civil war. Chamorro's victory triggered an influx of assistance from the USA that exceeded $300 million across two years.
However, the Nicaraguan economy had been devastated by years of civil conflict. US politicians withdrew aid in 1992, contending that Sandinistas covertly controlled the economy. Chamorro's legacy, therefore, was to terminate the war but leave behind a ravaged economy that would require decades to rebuild.
Key figure: Violeta Chamorro (b. 1929)
Violeta Chamorro and her husband Pedro, editor of La Prensa, were outspoken opponents of the Somoza regime. Pedro's persistent criticism of the government resulted in his assassination in 1978, with Violeta assuming the role of editor. His death became one of the catalysts of the Sandinista revolution, which overthrew Somoza in 1979 amid elections. Chamorro initially viewed herself as part of the Sandinistas but felt they had shifted too far to the left and departed from the party. In 1990, she led a 14-party anti-Sandinista coalition that secured electoral victory.
El Salvador
In 1984, amidst the Salvadoran Civil War, presidential elections took place that resulted in the election of José Napoleon Duarte, a Christian Democrat representing the most left-leaning political party permitted to contest the elections. Fearful of an alternative outcome, the United States had channelled $6 million into his campaign. Though Duarte attempted to limit the power of the armed forces, atrocities persisted as individual officers conducted campaigns against rural villagers they arbitrarily labelled insurgents.
The FMLN – a coalition of leftist guerrilla groups that obtained support from the Soviet Union and Cuba – maintained its actions against the military and declared its intention to continue until the death squads were eliminated. The United States, under Ronald Reagan and George Bush, financed the government and supplied military assistance, stating its determination to prevent the further expansion of communism in the western hemisphere.
A 1987 amnesty law designed to release those falsely accused from prison also pardoned members of the military death squads, provoking considerable anger amongst the population. This discontent intensified when the 1988 elections produced the presidency of Alfredo Cristiani. In response, the opposition FMLN initiated a renewed offensive against the government.
Though the FMLN could not secure victory, government forces likewise could not defeat them, and the necessity for a truce became increasingly apparent. The USA grew increasingly uncomfortable with continuing support for the Salvadoran Army, despite many of its ranks having received training at the School of the Americas in Fort Benning, Georgia. The government was encouraged to commence negotiations. The peace accords were signed in 1992 and the FMLN became a legitimate political party.
The US readiness to engage in negotiations during the early 1990s directly resulted from the ending of the Cold War. Following the events of 1989, Soviet attempts at global domination appeared less probable, and the USA proved willing to abandon the anti-communist stance it had maintained – particularly in Latin America, where it had feared communist expansion after Fidel Castro rose to power in 1959.
US relaxation and UN oversight of elections in 1994 placed El Salvador on a trajectory towards democracy.
Cuba
With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba lost the primary source of its funding. Whilst Castro remained committed to perpetuating communism and revolutionary struggle, Cuba lacked the extensive resources it previously possessed and could not sustain its policies without economic restructuring. After decades of dependence on sugar exports, Cuba was compelled to diversify its trading partners and economy. These steps proved initially challenging but ultimately rendered Cuba considerably more independent.
Though Cuba continued to export sugar, its new market was China. The country also engaged with Europe and Canada, reopening Cuba to tourism, which proved most beneficial. Cuba concluded a series of agreements that brought hard currency into the country.
Through this transformation, Cuba maintained its vast social programmes. However, it had to curtail its assistance to other countries, resulting in the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Africa and a diminishing number of medical and infrastructure experts stationed abroad.
Key Points to Remember:
- The end of the Cold War prompted the United States to reduce its strategic involvement in Central America, withdrawing support from right-wing dictatorships and encouraging democratic transitions
- Nicaragua's 1990 elections, influenced by US backing, brought Violeta Chamorro to power and ended the civil war, though the country inherited a devastated economy that US politicians abandoned in 1992
- El Salvador's protracted civil war concluded with 1992 peace accords after the USA, responding to the end of the Cold War, encouraged negotiations between the government and FMLN guerrillas
- Cuba lost Soviet funding after 1991 and was forced to restructure its economy, diversifying trade partners (particularly China, Europe, and Canada) and developing tourism whilst maintaining its social programmes but withdrawing from international commitments
- The early 1990s marked a shift from Cold War confrontation to negotiated settlements across Central America, with the USA prioritising regional institutions and market economies over military support for anti-communist regimes