The Second Cold War (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Solidarity in Poland and the KAL 007 Incident
Pope John Paul II and the Catholic challenge to communism
In 1978, the election of Polish-born Karol Jozef Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II marked a turning point for the Roman Catholic Church's relationship with communist Poland. The Pope assumed a more active role in Polish political affairs, using his religious authority to challenge state control.
Encyclical - a letter sent out to all Roman Catholic churches from the Pope, to be read to all faithful Roman Catholics, defining the Church's position on an issue relevant to the Roman Catholic Church.
The Pope's first encyclical focused on human dignity and the protection of human rights, establishing a moral framework that would underpin resistance to authoritarian rule.
The 1979 papal visit to Poland
In June 1979, Pope John Paul II visited Poland, his homeland, which remained a deeply Roman Catholic country despite communist rule. This was not merely a religious event but carried profound political significance. The visit attracted an estimated 12 million Poles who witnessed the Pope expressing his views on international reconciliation.
The papal message emphasised the necessity of working for peace and reconciliation among the peoples of the world, and advocated for the opening of borders to reunite Europe. However, one comment proved particularly influential: the Pope stated that the future of Poland would rest on the number of people 'mature enough to become non-conformists'. By speaking freely within an aggressive and controlling state, John Paul II demonstrated that resistance was possible and provided moral legitimacy to those who would challenge communist authority.
The Papal Visit's Political Impact
The 1979 visit was transformative because it showed that resistance to communist authority was possible. By speaking freely in a totalitarian state, Pope John Paul II provided moral legitimacy to dissidents and demonstrated that the regime's control was not absolute. This visit laid the groundwork for the emergence of Solidarity the following year.
Key Figure: Pope John Paul II (1920-2005)
Born Karol Jozef Wojtyla, he became an influential figure for change in both international relations and among different religious groups. He influenced the collapse of communism in Poland and improved relations between the Roman Catholic Church and Judaism and Islam. His papacy demonstrated how religious authority could be mobilised to challenge secular totalitarian regimes.
The formation and rise of Solidarity
Economic crisis and worker resistance
By 1980, Poland was experiencing a severe economic crisis. This triggered a popular response among Polish workers, who faced government-imposed rises in food prices of up to 100 per cent. These price increases were designed to slow Poland's rapidly increasing foreign debts, but instead provoked widespread discontent.
During July and August 1980, approximately 300,000 workers went on strike in response to the government's economic policies. In order to tackle the crisis, the government agreed to officially accept the first independent Polish trade union among workers in the Lenin shipyard in Gdansk.
The Solidarity trade union
The union was named Solidarity, and its leader was Lech Walesa, an electrician by trade. Walesa insisted that Solidarity was not a political movement and its aim was not to overthrow the state, but rather to reform its relationship with the people.
Despite Walesa's denial, it became clear that Solidarity was an influential political organisation. The union's membership rapidly increased to approximately 10 million people. Strikes erupted throughout the country, leading to substantial pay rises. Solidarity represented a direct challenge to communist control, as it provided an independent platform for worker organisation outside state structures.
Key Figure: Lech Walesa (b. 1943)
Lech Walesa was an electrician who became a dissident trade union activist and, consequently, was persecuted by the communist authorities. He proved instrumental in negotiating the Gdansk Agreement, which enabled Solidarity to legally exist. In 1989, he succeeded in establishing a Solidarity-led government in Poland. He served as Poland's president until 1995.
Solidarity's Significance
Solidarity represented the first independent trade union in the Soviet bloc. With 10 million members, it demonstrated that popular organisation outside state control was achievable. This challenged the fundamental principle of communist party dominance and showed that workers could organise independently to protect their interests, setting a precedent for other Eastern European nations.
The Soviet response and crushing of Solidarity
USSR concerns and military preparations
The USSR, concerned about the concessions being made to Solidarity and the existence of an independent movement, started to carry out military manoeuvres along the Polish frontier. Solidarity, with increasing confidence, proposed a national referendum, testing the people's confidence in the government.
In June 1981, the Soviet Politburo secretly decided not to undertake military intervention in Poland, regardless of the circumstances. The Soviets feared substantial armed resistance and were not prepared to face the increased Western economic sanctions that would inevitably follow any military intervention.
Politburo - the highest policy-making government authority under communist rule; it was the central policy-making and governing body of the Communist Party.
General Jaruzelski and martial law
On 6 September 1981, General Wojciech Jaruzelski became Communist Party leader in Poland and threatened to impose martial law. Solidarity refused to take his threats seriously and was convinced that the Polish Army would not support the regime, which would therefore collapse.
Key Figure: General Wojciech Jaruzelski (1923-2014)
General Jaruzelski was First Secretary of the Polish United Workers Party in 1981 when he confronted Solidarity. He headed an orchestrated assault against any Poles who dared to challenge the Party's dominance and the communist system in Poland. During his period in office up to 1989, about 700,000 people fled the country.
On 13 December 1981, General Jaruzelski and the Military Committee of National Redemption imposed martial law. This meant:
- All gatherings, processions and demonstrations were banned
- The dissemination of information was banned
- A curfew was imposed on all citizens during the hours of 10:00pm and 6:00am
- Official permission was needed to be away from home for more than 48 hours
- Only one state-controlled radio and TV station was to be allowed to broadcast
In addition to these restrictions, Solidarity leaders were arrested and the union itself was eventually banned.
The aftermath of martial law
Martial law brought the immediate crisis under control but resulted in a deepening economic crisis. The USA imposed economic sanctions, and trade and tourism suffered. Solidarity was not defeated; it simply went into hiding, only to fully re-emerge intact in 1989.
Long-term Consequences
The Polish crisis demonstrated the limits of Soviet power and the resilience of popular movements when supported by both religious and moral authority. Crucially, it showed that the USSR was increasingly unwilling to use military force to maintain control over Eastern European states—a significant shift that would have profound implications for the region's future.
The shooting down of KAL 007
The incident and competing narratives
On 1 September 1983, a major blow to Soviet-American relations came with the shooting down of a South Korean civil airliner, KAL 007, by a Soviet interceptor. The incident immediately became a source of conflicting claims and accusations.
Having initially denied involvement in the incident, the Soviets then claimed that it was not a civilian plane. They argued that the plane was on a spying mission on behalf of the USA. This claim was immediately denied by the USA who, in turn, accused the USSR of wilfully destroying a civil aircraft and causing the deaths of 269 people, including 61 Americans, as a consequence.
The incident clearly demonstrated the ever-growing divisions between the two sides. The issue became framed as one of Soviet barbarity versus American espionage.
Impact on superpower relations
The KAL 007 tragedy did alarm US President Reagan. He understood that errors could happen, but one that could have led to a full-blown nuclear war between the USA and the USSR did have a substantial influence on his approach to the Soviets.
However, in the immediate aftermath, the incident served to deepen mistrust and hostility. It provided ammunition for those in the West who viewed the Soviet Union as reckless and aggressive, whilst the Soviets used it to justify their narrative of American provocations.
The Danger of Miscalculation
The KAL 007 incident highlighted the dangerous potential for miscalculation in the superpower rivalry. President Reagan recognized that such errors could escalate into nuclear conflict, which influenced his later approach to Soviet relations. The tragedy demonstrated how quickly tensions could spiral out of control during the Second Cold War.
Yuri Andropov's response and Soviet perceptions
Andropov's statement
On 28 September 1983, in the wake of the KAL 007 incident, Yuri Andropov, the leader of the USSR, issued a statement seeking to evaluate the Soviet perception of the Reagan administration.
Key Figure: Yuri Andropov (1914-84)
Andropov was best known outside of the USSR as the General Secretary, from 1982 to 1984. He was a lifelong member of the Communist Party, starting as a member of the Komsomol (the Communist Party youth organisation) and rising through the ranks during the Second World War while assisting Finnish partisans. As ambassador to Hungary, he held a position in the suppression of the revolution in 1956, and later became the director of the KGB (the Soviet secret police), a position he held until his appointment as General Secretary. His brief tenure was marked by a move towards transparency, especially with regard to government spending.
Soviet assessment of Reagan's policies
Reagan's administration was seen as one that was pursuing a militaristic course that threatened peace, because it was seeking to establish the USA as a dominant global power while disregarding the interests of other nations.
The Soviet Union took the view that the USA had abandoned détente and was moving towards a policy geared to military superiority over the USSR. There was also the view that the Reagan administration was seeking to undermine the Soviet Union and to challenge national liberation movements globally.
This Soviet perception reflected deep anxieties about American intentions and contributed to the atmosphere of mutual suspicion that characterised the Second Cold War. The combination of events in Poland and the KAL 007 incident reinforced Soviet concerns about Western encroachment and internal instability.
Key Points to Remember:
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Pope John Paul II's June 1979 visit to Poland provided moral authority for resistance to communism, with his message about 'non-conformists' inspiring opposition to state control.
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Solidarity emerged in 1980 as an independent trade union led by Lech Walesa, growing to 10 million members and representing a direct challenge to communist authority in Poland.
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General Jaruzelski imposed martial law on 13 December 1981 with strict restrictions, including curfews, bans on gatherings, and controlled media, though Solidarity survived underground until 1989.
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The shooting down of KAL 007 on 1 September 1983, killing 269 people including 61 Americans, severely damaged Soviet-American relations and became a symbol of superpower mistrust.
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Yuri Andropov's September 1983 statement revealed Soviet perceptions that Reagan had abandoned détente and was pursuing military superiority, contributing to the hostile atmosphere of the Second Cold War.