New Personalities (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
New Personalities
Context: the shift away from détente
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 marked the collapse of détente. The Carter administration viewed this action not as a response to Soviet concerns about Afghanistan but as opportunistic expansionism, signalling that America was merely awaiting such an incident to abandon détente entirely.
Carter's response demonstrated a fundamental shift in US policy: the USA moved away from the Nixon-Kissinger approach of managing Soviet power through cooperation and reverted to the Truman-Eisenhower-Kennedy policy of containment.
This position became enshrined in the Carter Doctrine, which committed America to preventing further Soviet expansion and demanded international condemnation of Soviet actions.
Ronald Reagan and the American approach
Reagan's background and worldview
Ronald Reagan (1911-2004) brought a distinctly confrontational approach to Cold War relations when he assumed the presidency in 1981. Originally a Hollywood actor who entered politics in 1966, Reagan was a right-wing Republican who had cut domestic social programme spending whilst increasing military expenditure. His foreign policy record included adopting an aggressive stance towards Central America, exemplified by ordering the invasion of Grenada in 1983 to remove a Marxist government.
Reagan's presidency introduced heightened tension and suspicion into superpower relations. The 1980s witnessed a renewed fear of nuclear conflict, with both superpowers developing the capability to destroy the earth multiple times over. The arms race accelerated dramatically during this period.
Reagan's challenge to Soviet legitimacy
In June 1982, Reagan delivered a speech to the British Parliament that explicitly set out his confrontational position. He argued that regimes established by totalitarianism across Eastern Europe—"from Stettin on the Baltic to Varna on the Black Sea"—had held power for over thirty years but lacked genuine legitimacy because they could not risk free elections.
Reagan stated that governments "planted by bayonets do not take root." His objective was to foster democratic infrastructure, rejecting Western hesitancy about challenging the Soviet system. He called for the West to demonstrate strength and offer hope, declaring that "a new age is not only possible but probable."
This speech established that Reagan would not contemplate armed conflict to dismantle Soviet control over Eastern Europe, but he was determined to pursue aggressive policies designed to alter Soviet behaviour. Reagan believed détente had resulted in misplaced American trust in Soviet intentions.
The policy of unilateralism
Reagan held previous administrations responsible for permitting America's global power to erode. In March 1983, he identified Soviet leaders as responsible for international unrest across multiple levels. Reagan argued that addressing the Soviet challenge required abandoning détente and the cooperative conflict resolution upon which it was founded.
The USA adopted a policy of unilateralism—acting based on the state's own resources as an individual state rather than through alliances with other states. Reagan wanted to restore American military strength and reaffirm American pride. He feared Soviet communism remained expansionist and would spread unless America could effectively contain it.
This approach drew a clear line under détente, returning the USA to a position of containment and confrontation. Some historians argue Reagan's stance contributed to what has been termed a 'Second Cold War'.
Problems with arms control
Pressure from Europe and the increasingly popular nuclear 'freeze' movement in America (which advocated halting deployment of all nuclear weapons) forced the Reagan administration to accept limited cooperation by late 1981. Arms negotiations were designated the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START).
However, START stalled almost immediately. Negotiations did not properly commence until mid-1982, and even then the gap between the two sides remained enormous. The USA proceeded with deploying missiles in Europe, installing the first cruise and Pershing II missiles in November 1983. In response, the USSR abandoned the talks entirely.
This marked the first time in over a decade that the USA and USSR were not engaged in any negotiation. Soviet leaders interpreted American actions as evidence that the USA was not genuinely interested in reaching a mutually beneficial agreement.
They hoped that by terminating negotiations, Western powers would pressure America to adopt a more realistic stance. Reagan's response was to blame the Soviet Union for the breakdown, arguing they were the power that had walked away from discussions.
Margaret Thatcher and Britain's role
Thatcher's alignment with Reagan
Margaret Hilda Thatcher (1925-2013) became Britain's first female prime minister in 1979. In 1982, she led Britain into war with Argentina over control of the Falkland Islands. Thatcher served as an important connection between Mikhail Gorbachev and Presidents Reagan and Bush, playing a role in bringing the Cold War to an end.
In January 1981, following Reagan's inauguration, Thatcher sent him a letter expressing congratulations and hope for renewed friendship. She wrote: "You face a formidable task of leadership at a dangerous time. But your inauguration is a symbol of hope for the [NATO] Alliance, and you can depend on my support and my work with you to meet the challenges of the 1980s."
Thatcher visited Reagan in February 1981, initiating what was perceived as a honeymoon period in Anglo-American relations. Britain positioned itself as a solid friend of the USA throughout Reagan and Thatcher's leadership.
In June 1982, Reagan visited Britain and delivered his devastating attack on the Soviet Union to the combined Houses of Parliament, calling for a 'crusade for freedom' with the Soviet Union as his target.
Thatcher's concerns about the Strategic Defence Initiative
Thatcher shared Reagan's conviction that the Cold War had persisted too long and that the Soviet Union had been wrongly strengthened by détente's effects. She agreed that Reagan had placed 'freedom on the offensive'. Thatcher permitted the USA to launch F-111 bombers against Libya in 1986, and Britain appeared to be a willing ally supporting American aggression. Her reward came when the USA agreed to allow Britain to extradite for trial in Northern Ireland suspected IRA terrorists who had sought refuge in America.
Despite deviating from the Western European position that opposed American bombing of Libya, Thatcher proved less willing to support Reagan's Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) project wholeheartedly.
Thatcher repeatedly expressed concern that Western Europe would be defenceless without the protective umbrella of American nuclear forces. In her assessment, the SDI project threatened to bring this vulnerability about. She feared that eliminating nuclear weapons would create a massive imbalance between the conventional forces of the West and East.
In a letter to Reagan, Thatcher stated: "As regards the Strategic Defence Initiative, I hope that I was able to explain to you clearly my preoccupation with the need not to weaken our efforts to consolidate support in Britain for the deployment of cruise and for the modernisation of Trident by giving the impression that a future without nuclear weapons is near at hand. We must continue to make the case for deterrence based on nuclear weapons for several years to come."
Pope John Paul II and the challenge to communism in Poland
The Pope's role in promoting change
In 1978, the Polish Pope was elected and enthroned as John Paul II, leading the Roman Catholic Church to assume a more active role in Polish political affairs. John Paul II focused his first encyclical (a letter sent to all Roman Catholic churches from the Pope, defining the Church's position on an issue) on human dignity and the protection of human rights.
In June 1979, John Paul II visited his homeland, Poland, a deeply Roman Catholic country. The visit was not merely a religious event but carried profound political implications. An estimated 12 million Poles witnessed the Pope expressing his views on international reconciliation. His message emphasised working for peace and reconciliation among the world's peoples and opening borders to reunite Europe.
A particularly notable comment made by the Pope was his statement that Poland's future would rest on the number of people 'mature enough to become non-conformists'. John Paul II had spoken freely within an aggressive and controlling state, and his words were credited with influencing the subsequent collapse of communism in Poland.
The crushing of Solidarity in Poland
Economic crisis and worker response
By 1980, Poland was experiencing a severe economic crisis, triggering a popular response from Polish workers. During July and August, approximately 300,000 workers went on strike in response to government-imposed price rises of up to 100 per cent. These increases were designed to slow Poland's rapidly increasing foreign debts. In order to tackle unemployment, the government agreed to officially accept the first independent Polish trade union among workers in the Lenin shipyard in Gdansk.
The formation and growth of Solidarity
The union was named Solidarity, and its leader was Lech Walesa (born 1943), an electrician by trade. Walesa became a dissident trade union activist and, consequently, was persecuted by the communist authorities. He proved instrumental in negotiating the Gdansk Agreement, which enabled Solidarity to legally exist. In 1989, he succeeded in establishing a Solidarity-led government in Poland and served as Poland's president until 1995.
Solidarity's leader insisted that the movement was not political and its aim was not to overthrow the state, but rather to reform its relationship with the people. Despite Walesa's denial, Solidarity clearly functioned as an influential political organisation.
The movement's membership rapidly increased to about 10 million. Strikes erupted throughout the country, leading to substantial pay rises. It was evident that Solidarity had become a powerful political force, regardless of Walesa's claims to the contrary.
Key Points to Remember:
- Reagan's presidency marked a decisive break from détente, returning America to a policy of containment and confrontation with the Soviet Union through unilateralism
- Reagan's June 1982 speech to the British Parliament challenged the legitimacy of Soviet-controlled regimes in Eastern Europe and called for fostering democracy, setting a confrontational tone for the decade
- Margaret Thatcher strongly aligned Britain with Reagan's approach, supporting American policies such as the bombing of Libya, though she expressed concerns about the Strategic Defence Initiative potentially leaving Western Europe defenceless
- Pope John Paul II's visit to Poland in June 1979 carried profound political significance, encouraging non-conformity and contributing to the eventual collapse of communism in Poland
- The Solidarity trade union, led by Lech Walesa, emerged from Poland's 1980 economic crisis and grew into a powerful political movement with approximately 10 million members, challenging communist authority despite claims of being non-political