US Policy towards Britain and Europe (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
US Policy towards Britain and Europe
Initial US approach to post-war Europe
After 1945, the USA planned to assist Europe's reconstruction as a democratic region where nations could cooperate both internally and on the international stage. Washington did not initially envisage long-term military or political involvement in Europe beyond the period needed to restore political and economic stability.
However, there was no clear indication the USA viewed Europe as a foundation for developing American global power. In July 1945, Assistant Secretary of State Dean G. Acheson warned that Europe's situation reflected a broader international problem that threatened the stability of international democracy rooted in capitalism. Acheson identified multiple crises: Europe's railway and power systems had collapsed, the financial system had reached complete standstill, and chaos pervaded the structures of an ordered society. The problem encompassed not merely the reconstruction of defeated post-war states, but the economic and social survival of all European states.
Under-Secretary of State William L. Clayton reinforced this assessment in May 1947. He determined that Europe was deteriorating steadily as millions faced starvation. Clayton warned that without substantial increases in American aid, Europe would undergo social, economic and political disintegration on a regional scale.
The Truman administration's concerns
President Harry S. Truman articulated the consequences for the USA if Europe disintegrated. In a 1947 radio broadcast, he explained:
"If communism is allowed to absorb the free nations we would be isolated from our sources of supply and detached from our friends. Then we would have to take defence measures which might really bankrupt our economy, and change our way of life so that we wouldn't recognise it as American any longer. That's the very thing we're trying to keep from happening."
This statement reveals the administration's understanding that European disintegration posed direct economic and security threats to the United States itself.
The USA's route into Europe: the 'special relationship' with Britain
The USA's engagement with Europe developed through its relationship with Britain. Britain offered a politically stable state amid the chaos of mainland Europe. Britain itself was the driving force in maintaining this relationship, motivated by the need to preserve its international status. This could only be accomplished with American support through its contribution to Britain's security. The relationship was not one of British dependency upon the USA, but rather one of mutual support.
The USA required Britain and its continuing role and influence in Europe. Britain needed the USA to strengthen its own international position. The USA had to establish a relationship with Western European powers, and Britain proved most receptive to these advances. Other Western European states were governed by left-wing socialist political groups who appeared less dependable than the British Labour movement. Consensus politics operated in Britain, meaning the USA could conduct business with a stable political partner.
Winston Churchill promoted the notion of a common identity and shared security needs between the USA and Britain. He argued these states would maintain this common bond as the foundation of their political, economic and strategic relationship. This notion became something of a myth in the early Cold War years and was often shown not to exist in reality as the basis for Anglo-American relations.
The launch of the Marshall Plan, June 1947
In May 1947, serving as Under-Secretary of State for Economic Affairs, Clayton returned from an inspection tour of Western Europe. He determined that failure to restore the economies of European states would inflict economic damage upon the USA. He predicted the loss of markets for American goods and resulting unemployment in the USA. He conveyed urgency and warned these outcomes could not be permitted to occur. His analysis exaggerated the economic importance of Europe to the USA, yet illustrated the USA's mounting concern about the nature of its long-term relationship with Europe.
Also in May 1947, George Kennan's Policy Planning Staff (PPS) stated that it did not view communist parties in Western Europe as the fundamental problem. For the PPS, the real issue was the Second World War's profound impact upon Europe's economic, political and social structure. The PPS argued that American aid to Europe should focus upon restoring Europe's economic strength rather than combating communism.
On 5 June 1947, George Marshall presented his plan, officially termed the European Recovery Program (ERP), at Harvard University. Marshall explained the purpose in these terms:
"Aside from the demoralising effect on the world at large and the possibilities of disturbances arising as a result of the desperation of the people concerned, the consequences to the economy of the United States should be apparent to all. It is logical that the United States should do whatever it is able to do to assist in the return of normal economic health in the world, without which there can be no political stability and no assured peace. Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. Its purpose should be the revival of a working economy in the world so as to permit the emergence of political and social conditions in which free institutions can exist... Governments, political parties, or other groups which seek to perpetuate human misery in order to profit therefrom politically or otherwise will encounter the opposition of the United States."
This speech established the ERP's objectives: restore economic health to prevent political instability and create conditions where free institutions could function, whilst opposing those who would exploit human suffering for political gain.
US strategic planning and the division of Europe
By 1947, American strategic planning on Europe concentrated on ensuring economic recovery following the Second World War, but also promoting unity within Europe. This would establish a stable and independent bloc of pro-American states. By 1947, the USA had determined that Western Europe could be shaped according to American interests and had committed to the concept of a divided Europe.
Timeline of developments
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| January 1947 | The British and US zones in Germany merged to create Bizonia |
| June 1947 | The Marshall Plan announced |
| February 1948 | A new currency introduced into the Western zones of Germany |
| June 1948 | The London Conference recommended a West German Constituent Assembly |
These measures demonstrate the progressive division of Germany and Europe into Western and Soviet spheres. Each step represented a deliberate move toward formalizing the separation between East and West, culminating in the eventual creation of two distinct German states.
Key figure: Dean G. Acheson
Dean G. Acheson (1893–1971) served as one of the architects of the Marshall Plan and US Secretary of State from 1949 to 1953. He held a principal role in formulating American policy towards Europe. Acheson committed to the concept of containment and to guaranteeing that American interests in Europe were protected by making its commitment manageable and effective. He also committed to preventing the spread of communism on a global scale and viewed Asia as an important element in this objective. Acheson proved highly influential in the USA's early Cold War policy.
The USA as global power
By the end of the Second World War, the USA had emerged as a superpower. This status meant its influence operated on a global and therefore worldwide scale rather than merely a regional level.
Global power status indicates that the state may intervene effectively anywhere in the world, distinguishing it from non-global or regional powers. This represented a fundamental shift in American foreign policy from its pre-war isolationist tendencies.
Key Points to Remember:
- The USA initially planned only temporary involvement in Europe for reconstruction purposes, not long-term political or military entanglement.
- By 1947, American officials (Acheson and Clayton) warned that Europe faced economic collapse, social chaos and potential disintegration without substantial US aid.
- The USA developed its European policy through the 'special relationship' with Britain, which offered political stability and mutual benefits rather than one-sided dependency.
- The Marshall Plan (European Recovery Program) launched in June 1947 aimed to restore Europe's economic health to prevent political instability and create conditions for free institutions.
- By 1947, US strategic planning committed to creating a stable, pro-American bloc in Western Europe, accepting the division of Europe into Western and Soviet spheres.