US–USSR Summits (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Reagan and 'Star Wars'
Background to SDI
During the early years of his presidency, Reagan expressed growing alarm about Soviet military expansion during the 1970s. Like many Americans of his generation, he was deeply concerned about the resurgence of Cold War hostilities under Leonid Brezhnev and the escalating risk of nuclear conflict. Reagan believed the United States needed a means of countering the threat posed by Soviet nuclear weapons.
Reagan's concerns about Soviet military build-up reflected a broader American anxiety during the late Cold War period. The perception that the Soviet Union had gained military advantages during the 1970s under Brezhnev drove much of Reagan's early foreign policy thinking.
The announcement of the Strategic Defence Initiative
In March 1983, Reagan directed the military, scientific and industrial communities within the United States to begin a long-term research programme aimed at addressing the nuclear threat. This initiative sought to develop a defence system capable of protecting against Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).
Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) was Reagan's proposed programme to create an advanced anti-nuclear defence system that would intercept and destroy nuclear weapons whilst they were still in space, before they could reach their intended targets on American soil.
Reagan argued that such a system would serve two purposes. First, it would provide the United States with protection from nuclear attack. Second, it would encourage the Soviet Union to reduce its stockpiles of nuclear weapons, since these weapons would become less effective if they could be destroyed before reaching their targets. Study groups were established and substantial funding was allocated to explore whether such protection could realistically be developed.
The 'Star Wars' nickname
Critics within the United States dismissed SDI as unrealistic and technologically unfeasible. They labelled the programme 'Star Wars' in a disparaging reference to the popular science fiction film. This nickname also alluded to Reagan's earlier description of the Soviet Union as an 'evil empire', creating an association between his rhetoric and the fantastical elements of the film. Some feared that SDI would extend warfare into outer space, though this was not an accurate characterisation of the programme's defensive objectives.
The 'Star Wars' nickname reflected widespread scepticism within the American scientific community about whether such a defensive system could actually be built with existing or foreseeable technology. This domestic criticism would prove ironic given Soviet fears that the system would work.
Soviet response and fears
Although SDI was never actually developed, Soviet leaders harboured serious concerns about American progress in this technology. Even before Gorbachev came to power, Soviet officials feared that if the United States successfully created SDI, it would gain a de facto nuclear monopoly. With such a system operational, the United States would possess the capability to destroy Soviet nuclear weapons before they reached their targets, fundamentally altering the nuclear balance between the superpowers.
The SDI Paradox
Whilst American experts remained sceptical that SDI could function as intended, Soviet leaders feared that it would succeed. This created a paradoxical situation where the perceived threat of SDI had real consequences even though the technology itself was never realised.
This anxiety drove the Soviet Union to continue heavily funding its own nuclear weapons programmes in order to maintain competitive parity and deter Western action. This massive expenditure became one burden that Gorbachev ultimately could not overcome, and SDI played an instrumental role in the internal economic collapse of the Soviet Union.
At the Moscow Summit in May–June 1988, old disputes over SDI resurfaced. When Reagan questioned Gorbachev about his opposition to strategic defences, Gorbachev replied that the Soviet people believed SDI was designed to position offensive weapons in space rather than serve purely defensive purposes.
European reactions to SDI
Western European nations were divided over the implications of SDI. British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher expressed scepticism, dismissively calling the programme "pie in the sky". French President François Mitterrand advocated for a cooperative approach to outer space activities. Neither Thatcher nor Mitterrand viewed SDI as a genuine threat to Soviet security, yet both understood that it had the potential to exacerbate Cold War tensions.
Despite these reservations, NATO leaders ultimately endorsed the development of SDI. Thatcher and West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl became strong supporters of the programme. This support further troubled communist hardliners within the Soviet Union precisely at the moment when Gorbachev was demonstrating willingness to abandon SDI as an obstacle to nuclear agreements.
The division among Western European leaders reflected different strategic priorities. Whilst some saw SDI as destabilising, others viewed it as a technological advantage that could strengthen the West's negotiating position with the Soviet Union.
SDI as an obstacle in negotiations
From the Geneva Summit onwards, SDI proved to be a major sticking point in US–Soviet negotiations. Gorbachev wanted to launch a spectacular initiative that would clearly demonstrate the Soviet Union's commitment to ending the nuclear arms race. Reagan, for his part, showed considerable willingness to reduce the absolute number of nuclear weapons possessed by the USA.
The Soviet Union faced a critical dilemma: they feared that abandoning their nuclear deterrent whilst the United States pursued SDI would leave them vulnerable. Therefore, the Soviets continued their heavy spending on nuclear weapons programmes to maintain competitiveness, creating enormous economic strain.
This created a difficult position for Gorbachev, who had to justify maintaining cordial relations with the United States even whilst America appeared to be constructing an anti-Soviet weapons system.
By the time of the Moscow Summit in May–June 1988, both leaders recognised that whilst they could agree on cultural exchanges and human rights matters (signing seven agreements including fishing rights and student exchange programmes), the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) remained unresolved. No progress was made on SDI at this summit.
SDI's role in ending the Cold War
The Strategic Defence Initiative was instrumental in the internal collapse of the Soviet Union. The massive spending required to counter the potential American technological advantage placed enormous strain on the already struggling Soviet economy. Gorbachev's inability to match American spending on strategic defence whilst simultaneously attempting domestic reforms contributed to the economic pressures that eventually brought about the end of the Cold War.
The programme also created a political dilemma for Gorbachev. He faced pressure from communist hardliners who were alarmed by his willingness to consider abandoning SDI as an obstacle to nuclear agreements, whilst simultaneously needing to justify cordial relations with an American administration that appeared committed to developing strategic advantages over the Soviet Union.
Key Points to Remember:
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In March 1983, Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), a research programme to develop an anti-nuclear defence system that could destroy nuclear weapons in space before they reached their targets.
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Critics nicknamed the programme 'Star Wars' and doubted it was technologically possible, but Soviet leaders feared it would give the United States a nuclear monopoly and continued heavy spending to maintain parity.
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SDI became a major obstacle in negotiations from Geneva to Moscow, with Gorbachev unable to agree to nuclear reductions whilst the USA pursued this defensive system.
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Western European leaders were divided, with Thatcher calling it "pie in the sky" and Mitterrand advocating cooperation, though NATO ultimately supported the programme with strong backing from Thatcher and West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl.
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SDI played an instrumental role in the Soviet Union's collapse by forcing massive spending on nuclear programmes that Gorbachev could not sustain, contributing to the economic pressures that ended the Cold War.