Conservatism (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes
Core Ideas and Tensions
Conservatism is built upon several core principles that shape conservative thinking about government, society, the economy and human nature. However, there are significant tensions between different strands of conservatism, particularly between traditional conservatism and the New Right.
Government, free market and the individual
Government
All conservatives believe that government is essential to maintain order, security and stability. They agree the government should be limited in size while remaining committed to preserving and protecting the nation state.
Key Tension in Government Role
The fundamental disagreement among conservatives centers on the extent of government intervention. This tension reveals itself across three domains: the economy, society, and people's private lives and moral choices.
However, conservatives disagree significantly about the extent to which government should intervene in the economy, society, and people's private lives and moral choices. Traditional conservatives favour more intervention to preserve the organic society, whilst neo-liberals prefer minimal state involvement.
Free market
The free market, founded on the principle of private property, is seen as fundamental to creating a prosperous economy that generates wealth for all members of society.
One-nation conservatives argue, based on the principle of paternalism, that wealthy members of society have a responsibility towards those less fortunate. They believe that inequality, combined with cheap imports and immigrant labour, threatens social stability. Therefore, they support a more interventionist state role in managing the economy.
Neo-liberals, by contrast, argue that the state's economic role should be limited to creating conditions that allow individuals to help themselves. They believe hard work and creativity should be fully rewarded without state interference.
Exam Tip: Understanding Conservative Economic Skepticism
Conservative scepticism about the free market and globalisation stems from concerns that they increase inequality and threaten social order. This explains why conservatives have historically supported protectionist policies (such as taxes on imports) and the mixed economy.
The individual
Conservatives value individual freedom and choice. However, they simultaneously argue that the state must provide stability and order for genuine freedom to exist. This leads conservatives to support strong law and order measures.
Traditional conservatives advocate a more interventionist state to protect the organic society. Neo-liberals, however, view society in atomistic terms (as a collection of individuals), placing greater emphasis on individual liberty and favouring a smaller state.
Human nature
Areas of agreement
Most conservatives, except for New Right thinkers, maintain a pessimistic view of human nature. Conservatism has been characterised as a 'philosophy of imperfection', emphasising human fallibility and weakness.
The Philosophy of Imperfection
This focus on imperfection highlights the gap between human aspirations and reality. Conservatives therefore argue that creating a perfect society is both unachievable and dangerous. They reject:
- The liberal idea that society can be built on purely rational individuals
- The socialist belief that society can perfect humanity, since they view human nature as fixed and unchanging
This perspective underpins conservative opposition to the utopian visions of radical movements and ideologies.
This represents the 'politics of scepticism' rather than the 'politics of faith'.
Areas of tension
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes held the most cynical view of human nature amongst conservative thinkers. He portrayed humans as fundamentally selfish, fearful of others, and driven by a 'desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death'.
However, Hobbes also believed human nature was rational. This places his understanding of human nature closer to liberalism (and later neo-liberalism) than to traditional conservatism.
Edmund Burke
Like Hobbes, Burke was deeply sceptical about human nature, agreeing it is neither flawless nor perfectible. However, Burke rejected Hobbes's harsh characterisation of humans as individualistic, selfish and brutal.
Instead, Burke saw humans as flawed yet capable of goodness and affection towards others, provided their actions are guided by custom and tradition. He believed humans naturally seek bonds of trust with others in 'little platoons' (local communities and associations).
Michael Oakeshott
Oakeshott developed Burke's ideas further, describing human nature as 'fragile and fallible' with an instinctive preference for the familiar over the unknown. Where people enjoy security and their lives are shaped by custom and traditional morality, humanity can be both 'benign and benevolent'.
Ayn Rand and Robert Nozick
The New Right's Radical Departure
Rand and Nozick broke away from the philosophy of imperfection entirely. They held a positive view of human nature, seeing humans as rational individuals who are dignified (not brutal) in pursuing their personal goals.
This represents the most significant philosophical split within conservatism, as it fundamentally challenges the traditional conservative understanding of human nature.
Consequently, the New Right allows individuals to make their own choices in both social and economic spheres, believing this leads to an inspiring future of human achievement.
Exam Tip: Demonstrating Judgment
When discussing different strands of conservatism, don't simply explain similarities and differences. Evaluate the significance of both to demonstrate judgement.
The state
Area of agreement
All conservatives agree that the state's central purpose is to provide national security and maintain law and order.
Areas of tension
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes argued that people unite through a social contract to create a sovereign authority. This sovereign requires absolute power to ensure the order and stability necessary for society and freedom to flourish.
Edmund Burke
Burke rejected the Hobbesian social contract. Instead, he proposed a 'contract between the dead, the living and the yet to be born'. For Burke, the state is natural and organic, emerging gradually in response to human needs.
Traditional conservatives believe the state should actively protect and promote the interests of all citizens. Burke argued that hierarchy is natural and that the state and ruling class should act with a sense of public service rather than self-interest, demonstrating duty towards the less fortunate in society.
Paternalism and the State
Traditional conservatives view the state as paternalist, arguing that moderate social reform and intervention can be justified to benefit those less fortunate. This paternalistic approach contrasts sharply with the New Right's minimal state philosophy.
Burke opposed vast, centralised and remote state structures, preferring local communities where natural bonds of trust, duty and loyalty can develop.
Oakeshott believed the state should be guided by pragmatism (practical, flexible approaches based on circumstances rather than abstract principles).
The New Right
New Right thinkers argue the state should be minimal, existing only to provide national security, enforce contracts and maintain law and order.
For Nozick, distributive justice (through taxation and the welfare state) is fundamentally unjust because it amounts to legalised theft. The state takes wealth through taxation to benefit those who contributed nothing towards creating that wealth.
Exam Tip: Nozick's Principled Opposition
It's commonly assumed the New Right opposes the welfare state purely on grounds of inefficiency and for creating a dependency culture. However, Nozick would oppose it even if it were efficient, arguing it's unjust as it enslaves citizens. This is a principled, not pragmatic, objection.
Society
Traditional forms of conservatism
Traditional conservatism holds a paternalistic view of society. Society is natural, organic and living, with individuals bound together by common ties, obligations and responsibilities - much like a family.
Tradition, custom and continuity are essential elements of society because they form the basis of these common ties. Any attempt to radically transform traditional institutions, customs and practices risks causing severe damage to society.
The Foundation of Social Bonds
Shared values and morals also underpin these common ties. This explains conservative support for:
- Judeo-Christian moral values
- Traditional marriage
- Patriotism
These elements are not merely preferences but essential components of social cohesion.
Hobbes argued that society can only exist when stability, authority and order are present, requiring obedience and loyalty to the sovereign.
Burke maintained an organic view of society, favouring a natural hierarchy where those with natural governing talents exercise power responsibly in everyone's best interests. He championed a society built around 'little platoons' (local associations and communities), which establish common bonds of affection and accumulate the wisdom of custom and tradition over time.
Oakeshott emphasised the importance of the known, tried and tested, remaining sceptical about human progress. He argued that change should be modest, rooted in the past, and realistic rather than based on optimistic views of human nature.
The New Right
Rand and Nozick directly challenged the organic view of society. They saw society as atomistic - a collection of individuals rationally pursuing their own goals. They held a much more positive view of human progress.
According to the New Right, society has no right to impose obligations or restrictions on individuals through traditions, customs, shared values or morals. Individuals should be free to make their own rational choices in both economic and social spheres.
Exam Tip: Understanding Thatcher's Quote
In 1987, Margaret Thatcher famously stated: 'There is no such thing as society. There are individual men and women and there are families.'
While this appears to endorse the New Right atomistic view, Thatcher was actually neo-conservative in her approach, extending the state's role in promoting 'Victorian values'. This illustrates the complexity within New Right thinking.
The economy
Areas of agreement
Conservative Consensus on Economic Foundations
All conservatives agree on two fundamental economic principles:
Private Property Benefits:
- Provides individuals with security and safety in an ever-changing world
- Establishes the basis for respecting others' property rights, since we expect our own property to be respected - thus property is vital for maintaining order
- Represents an expression of the individual, as people see themselves reflected in what they own
- Should form the basis of the economy, with excessive restrictions limiting individual freedom, creativity and hard work
Capitalism's Efficiency:
- Capitalism is the most efficient and effective means of generating wealth
- It aligns with the conservative view of human nature as inherently selfish - people work harder when they know they'll keep the rewards of their labour
- Wealth inequality is natural, reflecting different levels of talent, hard work and effort
- Attempting to impose wealth equality is immoral, contradicting natural justice
Areas of tension
Hobbes argued that a powerful sovereign capable of imposing order and stability is essential for the economy to function.
Burke emphasised the importance of property rights and the state's duty to protect them. He believed the free market should operate without government interference, famously arguing that 'the moment that government appears at market, the principles of the market will be subverted'.
Burke on Government and Markets
Burke believed that 'to provide for us in our necessities is not in the power of government' - rather, this was the paternalistic responsibility of natural elites. Poverty alleviation should be achieved through private charity, not state intervention.
This quote illustrates the deep historical roots of free market thinking in conservative thought.
Traditional conservatives, taking a pragmatic approach, have historically supported protectionism (trade barriers), the mixed economy and welfarism to protect one nation from the threats posed by unregulated capitalism.
Oakeshott viewed private property as a form of security and power that should be spread as widely as possible throughout society to protect liberty.
The New Right are the strongest defenders of the free market. They argue that the free market, unhindered by state intervention, rewards rational individuals for their hard work and creativity.
For Nozick, the welfare state resembled forced labour. Individuals are compelled to work to create resources that the state redistributes to those who contributed nothing towards generating them.
Tensions within conservatism
Significant tensions exist between traditional conservatism and the New Right across all core conservative ideas:
Human nature
Traditional conservatism: The politics of imperfection dominates understanding of human nature. This perspective creates the need for order, stability and tradition. It also underpins a generally sceptical approach to politics based on pragmatism rather than abstract principles.
The New Right: A more optimistic view of human nature based on individual rationalism. The minimal state combined with a free market provides the foundation for individuals to flourish. This leads to a strongly ideological approach based on the principles of the small state and free market, creating a positive view of progress - the 'politics of faith' over the 'politics of scepticism'.
The state
Traditional conservatism: The state, led by a natural ruling class, should govern in the interests of the governed. A pragmatic approach argues the state should take an active role to ensure the social stability of 'one nation'.
The New Right: Rolling back the state to create a small but strong state that provides only security, law and order. This is just, maximises freedom, and reverses the dependency culture. Opposition to the idea of natural hierarchy, arguing instead for meritocracy where the most talented should lead.
Society
Traditional conservatism: Society is organic, based on 'little platoons'. The importance of tradition, custom and practice provides continuity in a changing world. These traditions should be nurtured according to the principle of 'change to conserve'.
The New Right: Society is a collection of individuals, each rationally pursuing their own goals. Society should be meritocratic not hierarchical, allowing the most talented to thrive and lead. Tradition, custom and practice should be challenged and changed if they obstruct individual freedom or the free market.
The economy
Traditional conservatism: The free market, based on private property, is the best creator of wealth. However, it can create tensions and divisions, so moderate reform, regulation and intervention may be necessary to preserve one nation and protect against radical ideas like socialism.
The New Right: The free market should be unregulated as it generates the most wealth, productivity and freedom for all. The free market allows innovation and the best ideas to drive the economy. This creates widespread wealth and raises living standards for all by reducing the cost of goods and services whilst increasing productivity and wages.
Exam Tip: Distinguishing New Right Strands
To distinguish between New Right strands:
- Neo-liberalism focuses on economic freedom and the free market
- Neo-conservatism emphasises traditional values and a stronger state role in moral and social issues
Remember!
Key Points to Remember
Human nature: Traditional conservatives see humans as imperfect and fallible (philosophy of imperfection), whilst the New Right sees humans as rational and capable. This is the fundamental divide in conservative thinking.
The state: All conservatives agree on the state's role in providing security and order, but traditional conservatives favour paternalism and intervention, whilst the New Right demands a minimal state.
Society: Traditional conservatives view society as organic with natural hierarchies and little platoons bound by tradition. The New Right sees society atomistically as individuals pursuing their own rational goals.
The economy: All conservatives support private property and capitalism, but traditional conservatives accept pragmatic intervention and the mixed economy, whilst the New Right champions unregulated free markets.
Key thinkers:
- Hobbes - social contract, absolute sovereign
- Burke - organic society, little platoons, tradition
- Oakeshott - pragmatism, change to conserve
- Rand and Nozick - rationalism, minimal state, free market