Factors That Influence Crime (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Globalisation and Crime
Understanding globalisation's impact on crime
Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness of societies worldwide. This process has been driven by factors including the growth of global media, international markets, mass migration, and tourism. According to Held et al. (1999), globalisation has created new opportunities for existing criminal activities while also enabling entirely new forms of crime to emerge.
The interconnected nature of globalisation means that criminal activities are no longer confined by traditional geographical boundaries, creating challenges for law enforcement agencies operating within national jurisdictions.
The enhanced communication and travel capabilities that globalisation provides have allowed the drugs industry to operate across national borders more effectively. Criminal activities now include human trafficking, arms trafficking, cybercrime, green crime, and international terrorism.
Economic transformation and crime
Deindustrialisation has played a key role in changing crime patterns. This process involves the decline of traditional manufacturing sectors in developed countries like the UK due to global economic shifts. The result has been fewer manual jobs, leading to unemployment, poverty, and increased crime rates.
Case Study: Winlow's Sunderland Research (2001)
Winlow's study of bouncers in Sunderland demonstrates how the 'night-time economy' has provided new opportunities for working-class men to express masculinity through violence, while also offering additional income through illegal activities such as drug dealing. This illustrates how global economic changes have created new criminal opportunities at the local level.
Global criminal networks and transnational crime
The evolution of organised crime
Castells (1998) estimated the global criminal economy was worth over £1 trillion annually. The illegal drugs trade exemplifies how global criminal networks have developed to meet Western demand. For instance, farmers in countries like Colombia find growing illegal crops more profitable than conventional agriculture. Consequently, cocaine production has become Colombia's largest export, surpassing all other exports combined.
Castells (1998) argues that crime has become truly global, involving networks of people across the globe. Unlike traditional mafia-style organisations with fixed hierarchies, modern criminal networks are increasingly fluid and adaptable.
Hobbs (1998) argues that crime has become truly global, involving networks of people across the globe. Unlike traditional mafia-style organisations with fixed hierarchies, modern criminal networks are increasingly fluid and adaptable.
The rise of McMafias
Gleeny (2008) traces modern transnational crime to the collapse of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, alongside the deregulation of global markets. In Russia, this created opportunities for a new capitalist class, often ex-Communist officials, to profit from selling natural resources on global markets.
Understanding McMafias
To protect their wealth, these 'oligarchs' formed new criminal organisations called McMafias. These groups comprised former Communist secret service employees, police, and criminals. Unlike traditional Mafia organisations, McMafias operate more fluidly and even 'franchise' their operations to other parts of the world, including groups like the Chechens.
Impact on domestic crime
Taylor (1997) examines how globalisation affects domestic crime from a Marxist perspective. Transnational corporations (TNCs) can easily relocate production to developing countries, which not only exploits workers in low-wage nations but also creates unemployment and poverty in developed countries, leading to increased domestic crime.
The deregulation accompanying globalisation and the difficulty of policing global crime has made it easier for elite groups and TNCs to commit crimes such as tax evasion.
The mobility of capital under globalisation creates a 'race to the bottom' where corporations seek the lowest wages and weakest regulations, potentially contributing to both exploitation in developing countries and economic displacement in developed nations.
Global risk society
Beck (1992) argues that late-modern societies face new types of insecurity, creating a global risk consciousness. This includes concerns about migration and global terrorism. The public demand to address these risks through media coverage has prompted Western governments to increase social control methods, including tighter border controls and enhanced surveillance technology.
Green crime
Environmental crimes in a global context
Green crimes are offences against the environment that can negatively impact both humanity and the natural world. Due to globalisation and the reality that Earth functions as a single ecosystem, green crime is increasing. Environmental disasters such as the Chernobyl nuclear accident and the BP oil spillage in the Gulf of Mexico demonstrate that environmental crimes are not confined by national boundaries.
Environmental crimes highlight a crucial aspect of globalisation: local actions can have global consequences. A single environmental disaster can affect multiple countries and ecosystems, making traditional national-based law enforcement inadequate.
Theoretical perspectives on green crime
Conflict theorists, particularly Marxists, argue that green crime is primarily committed by powerful groups such as oil companies (BP) and other TNCs working alongside political elites in government.
Beck suggests we live in a 'global risk society' created by increased demand for consumer goods. The resulting increase in production has led to 'manufactured risks', including increased greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global warming.
Green criminology
Green criminology goes beyond traditional criminology by studying environmental harms regardless of their legal status. White (2008) argues that existing laws are inadequate for addressing green crime properly. He suggests that green crime should include any activity causing environmental harm, even if not technically illegal.
White's approach represents a shift from studying only legally defined crimes to examining all forms of environmental harm, recognising that legal definitions may be influenced by powerful interests rather than environmental protection needs.
White contends that crimes such as rainforest deforestation are not being adequately addressed by national laws due to the influence of powerful TNCs like McDonald's.
Key Points to Remember:
-
Globalisation has created new opportunities for transnational organised crime while enabling traditional crimes to operate across borders more effectively
-
Deindustrialisation has transformed local crime patterns by reducing legitimate employment opportunities and creating new illegal economic activities
-
Modern criminal networks like McMafias operate more fluidly than traditional hierarchical organisations and can franchise operations globally
-
Environmental crimes demonstrate how globalisation means local actions can have global consequences, requiring new approaches to criminology
-
Global economic changes impact domestic crime rates through unemployment, poverty, and reduced social control in affected communities