Disability and Identity (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Disability and Identity
Understanding disability
Disability refers to a complex concept that has been understood and interpreted in various ways throughout history. Rather than having a fixed definition, perceptions of disability have evolved considerably in recent decades. The way societies view disability has a profound impact on how disability services are provided and how people with disabilities are treated within their communities.
Disability affects individuals differently, even when people have the same type of condition. Some disabilities may be hidden or not immediately visible, while others are more apparent. Importantly, anyone can acquire a disability at any point in their life, and disabilities exist along a spectrum with varying degrees of impact and ability that may overlap.
Western society has historically represented people with physical and psychological impairments in diverse ways - sometimes as holy or special, but unfortunately also in many less respectful and more harmful ways. This variation in representation reflects the socially constructed nature of disability.
Impact on personal identity
The relationship between disability and identity is heavily influenced by societal attitudes and cultural norms. Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Lock (1987) argue that modern society has become increasingly health-focused and body-conscious, creating an ideal of the "politically correct body" that is lean, strong and physically fit. This shift has transformed how we view impairment and ill health - no longer seen as misfortune or bad luck, but as individual failures to maintain proper lifestyle choices.
This individualisation of health can lead to the stigmatisation of those who do not conform to professionally determined standards of normality. Tom Shakespeare (1994) argues that disabled bodies are judged negatively compared to able-bodied individuals, leading to disabled people being viewed unfavourably. Media representations often portray disability as misfortune, with disabled people frequently shown as deserving charity rather than equality.
Shakespeare suggests that culture objectifies disabled people, treating them as things rather than individuals. This occurs within a patriarchal, masculine society that seeks bodily perfection and fears mortality. Disabled people may remind able-bodied individuals of life's impermanence and inevitable bodily decay, contributing to discriminatory attitudes.
Categories of disability
Disability encompasses six main categories, each with distinct characteristics:
Physical disability involves conditions affecting mobility or body function, including difficulties with walking, maintaining posture, or performing certain actions. This can range from partial to total impairment of movement.
Visual disability affects people who are blind or have significant vision impairment. While total hearing loss is rare, many people with visual disabilities have some remaining sight and may use aids or adaptations.
Hearing disability ranges from partial to complete hearing loss. Many deaf people use sign language and lip-reading for communication, with hearing aids providing assistance for some individuals.
Intellectual disability represents difficulty in understanding and learning, affecting mental functions including comprehension, knowledge retention, attention, communication, social skills, professional autonomy, emotional stability and behaviour.
Psychological disability involves mental health conditions that may result in disturbing behaviours for others, differing from usual habits and conventions. These conditions can be temporary, permanent or progressive.
Disabling diseases include respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive and parasitic conditions that can lead to deficiencies or limitations of varying severity. Nearly half of these diseases have respiratory or cardiovascular origins.
Cultural perspectives on disability
Cross-cultural research reveals the socially constructed nature of disability perceptions. Aaron Lippman's (1972) research in European countries like Denmark and Sweden found that citizens with disabilities experienced greater acceptance and more effective rehabilitation services compared to the UK. Scandinavian countries embrace a philosophy of social responsibility for all community members, regardless of their type or degree of disabling condition.
Cultural Example: Different Perspectives on Disability
In some African communities, such as Benin, children born with anomalies were historically viewed as protected by supernatural forces and welcomed because they were believed to bring good fortune. This contrasts sharply with Western approaches and demonstrates how cultural context shapes disability perceptions.
Historical analysis shows that ignorance, neglect, superstition and fear have been social factors contributing to the isolation of people with disabilities. Many negative attitudes stem from inadequate understanding of disabilities and their effects on daily functioning.
Models of disability
Two primary models explain how disability is understood and addressed, representing fundamentally different approaches to understanding and addressing disability:
Social model of disability
The social model argues that disability is caused by how society is organised rather than by individual impairments. This model focuses on removing barriers that restrict life choices for disabled people. These barriers extend beyond physical obstacles to include societal attitudes based on prejudice, stereotypes, or disablism.
The social model emphasises that when barriers are removed, disabled people can achieve independence and equality in society, maintaining choice and control over their lives. This model emerged because disabled people found that the traditional medical model failed to explain their lived experiences or promote inclusive living arrangements.
Medical model of disability
The medical model views disability as caused by individual impairments or differences. This approach suggests that impairments should be "fixed" or treated through medical intervention, even when the condition causes no pain or illness. The medical model examines what is "wrong" with the person rather than what support they might need.
This model creates lower expectations and can result in people losing independence, choice and control in their lives. It treats functional limitations as the root cause of any disadvantages experienced, suggesting these can only be addressed through treatment or cure.
Practical Example: Building Access
When a wheelchair user cannot enter a building with steps:
- Social model solution: Add a ramp for immediate access
- Medical model approach: Offers few solutions for overcoming stairs, effectively excluding the person from many activities
This illustrates how the social model provides practical solutions while the medical model may perpetuate exclusion.
Key sociological perspectives
Kay Tisdall (1997) examined the culture and identity of young disabled people, noting their marginalisation by mainstream society. Young disabled people are traditionally viewed as troubled, uninformed, dependent, needy and "other." These negative attitudes exclude them from full citizenship participation, reflected in high rates of mental health problems and learning difficulties among young homeless people and prison populations.
Tisdall advocates for creating meaningful participation that values the lives of young disabled people and develops positive identities. She argues that the cultural diversity of young people needs broader acknowledgement and understanding.
Social policy and rights
People with disabilities possess the same human rights as everyone else. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) is an international treaty that affirms these rights and requires state parties to ensure disabled people can fully enjoy their human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis.
The UK has made improvements in both socio-economic experiences for disabled people and related government policies over the past two decades. The British government aims to ensure fair treatment for disabled people across various contexts, with existing laws protecting against discrimination in workplaces and educational settings.
The Disability Discrimination Act 2005 outlines legal protections ensuring fair treatment in public spaces including shops, cinemas, theatres and banks. However, these laws and policies can be challenging to implement effectively, and disabled people may face disadvantages in reporting discrimination, making them particularly vulnerable.
Common stereotypes that disabled people face include being viewed as dependent, unable to contribute to society, non-sexual, specially gifted, or incapable of expressing personal preferences.
Media representation
Research reveals concerning trends in media coverage of disability issues. A comprehensive study by Inclusion London, the Glasgow Media Group and the Strathclyde Centre for Disability Research analysed disability reporting in major UK newspapers including The Sun, The Mirror, The Express, The Mail and The Guardian during 2010-2011.
The research found a notable increase in disability-focused articles alongside a shift towards more negative reporting tones. This negative media coverage causes disabled people to worry about acceptance by able-bodied individuals and reduces their confidence in personal safety. Participants expressed particular concern about how benefit system changes affected their quality of life and ability to participate in society.
Disablism represents discriminatory, oppressive or abusive behaviour arising from beliefs that disabled people are inferior to others. This concept is central to understanding how negative attitudes create barriers to full social participation.
Contemporary developments
Transhumanism represents an international intellectual and cultural movement advocating the use of science and technology to enhance human capabilities. Advanced electronics and materials are increasingly replacing whole limbs and organs, creating new possibilities for human-machine integration.
Current developments include bionic eye implants being tested in the UK to help blind patients see, demonstrating how technology is becoming a means of recreating individual identity. These advances raise questions about the future relationship between disability, technology and human enhancement.
While current bionic technology can grasp and manipulate objects, it cannot provide sensory feedback and remains expensive (bionic hands cost £30,000, artificial hearts £70,000). Some scientists believe future bionic enhancements could improve upon natural human performance, though technical challenges remain substantial.
Key Points to Remember:
- Disability is socially constructed - different cultures and times have viewed disability very differently, showing it's not just about individual impairments
- The social model focuses on removing societal barriers, while the medical model focuses on "fixing" individual impairments - these approaches lead to very different solutions and outcomes
- Media representation significantly affects public attitudes towards disabled people, with negative coverage reducing confidence and participation in society
- Legal frameworks like the CRPD and Disability Discrimination Act aim to protect rights, but implementation challenges remain
- Technology is creating new possibilities for human enhancement that may reshape how we understand disability and identity in the future