The Self, Identity, and Difference (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
The Self, Identity, and Difference
Understanding identity
Identity refers to how we perceive ourselves, how we believe others view us, and what we think others believe about us. It encompasses our understanding of who we are as individuals and involves both unique personal characteristics and shared qualities with others.
Identity formation occurs through socialisation, where we develop social roles and learn to position ourselves in relation to other people. This process involves recognising both similarities with some groups and differences from others, making identity inherently social in nature.
Sociologists examine multiple forms of identity, including social, cultural, and individual identities. They investigate how much our sense of self is influenced by society and social interactions, questioning whether identity is something we construct ourselves or something society creates for us.
Types of identity
Individual identity
This represents the unique sense of personal identity that each person possesses. Individual identity develops through social interaction with others and reflects personal characteristics that distinguish someone from others, whilst still being shaped by social processes.
Social identity
Social identity involves a collective sense of belonging to particular groups. People identify themselves as sharing similarities with other group members, whether based on factors like age, gender, ethnicity, class, or other social categories. This creates in-group solidarity but can also lead to distinguishing outsiders as different.
Cultural identity
Cultural identity represents belonging to distinct ethnic, cultural, or subcultural groups. It connects individuals to broader cultural traditions, values, and practices that help shape their sense of who they are.
Ascribed versus achieved identity
Sociologists distinguish between two ways identity characteristics are acquired:
Ascribed identity refers to identity aspects assigned by society that individuals cannot easily change. Examples include ethnic background, family social class, or certain physical characteristics. These aspects may be stigmatised by society, potentially creating disadvantages or negative labelling for individuals.
Achieved identity involves identity aspects that individuals can actively choose or influence. This includes political beliefs, lifestyle choices, career paths, or community involvement levels. Having greater ability to choose identities indicates more personal freedom and agency.
Worked Example: Ascribed vs Achieved Identity
Ascribed Identity:
- Being born into a working-class family (social class background)
- Ethnic heritage and physical characteristics
- Gender assigned at birth
Achieved Identity:
- Choosing to become a vegetarian (lifestyle choice)
- Deciding to pursue higher education (educational achievement)
- Joining a political party or social movement (political affiliation)
Some identity aspects may function as a master status - becoming so prominent that they overshadow other characteristics and significantly shape how society treats an individual.
The relationship between culture and identity
Culture and identity connect closely but remain distinct concepts. Culture provides the broader framework within which identity develops, whilst identity reflects personal meanings and self-understanding.
Sociologists typically view culture from a macro perspective (examining large-scale patterns) and identity from a micro perspective (focusing on individual experiences). People learn to express their identities using cultural resources available in their society, regardless of their biological inheritance.
Stereotypes and identity
Stereotypes are oversimplified generalisations about entire groups that ignore individual differences. They emerge when people lack accurate information about particular individuals or groups.
Stereotypes create foundations for prejudice and discrimination by denying access to opportunities for affected groups. They are typically learned early in life through family, education, peer groups, and media, profoundly influencing behaviour and beliefs throughout life.
Theoretical perspectives on identity
Interactionist approaches
Interactionists emphasise identity as emerging through social interaction. They view people as active agents who can influence how others perceive them, rather than passive recipients of social forces.
This perspective highlights how individuals develop self-concepts based partly on others' reactions to them. Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass self" illustrates how our self-understanding develops through interpreting others' responses to our behaviour.
However, some groups face challenges presenting positive self-images due to social stigma, making identity negotiation more difficult for marginalised communities.
Structural approaches
Structural perspectives (including functionalism and Marxism) focus on how social institutions and power inequalities shape identity. They argue that individual identities are largely determined by social position, particularly class background.
Marxists view identity as stemming from class position, whilst functionalists see it as resulting from socialisation into shared cultural values. Both approaches suggest individual choice in identity formation is more limited than interactionists propose.
Postmodernist perspectives
Stuart Hall argues that contemporary societies increasingly feature fractured identities - people no longer possess single, unified identities but instead select and focus on different aspects of themselves in various situations.
Postmodernists contend that modern society offers extensive choices about lifestyle and identity. Bauman suggests identity has become more fluid and changeable, with individuals able to modify their identity as desired.
Hobswarn compares identities to clothing items we can choose to wear rather than fixed characteristics we are born with. This reflects the replacement of dominant mainstream culture with diverse "taste groups" and varied lifestyle options.
Contemporary identity formation
Modern identity formation involves greater individual agency and choice. People can increasingly shape and modify their identities through cultural products including fashion, music, and lifestyle choices, rather than being bound by traditional factors like class, gender, or ethnicity.
This shift reflects broader social changes towards individualisation and the multiplication of available cultural options in postmodern society.
Key Points to Remember:
- Identity involves how we see ourselves, how others view us, and what we think others believe about us
- Three main types exist: individual, social, and cultural identity, each serving different functions in self-understanding
- Ascribed identities are given by society whilst achieved identities involve personal choice and agency
- Stereotypes create oversimplified group generalisations that can lead to prejudice and discrimination
- Different theoretical perspectives emphasise either social interaction, structural forces, or postmodern choice in identity formation