The Size of the Family (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
The Size of the Family
Historical trends in family size
Families in the UK have undergone substantial changes over the past century, with demographic shifts creating notably smaller family units. The transformation is evident when comparing key statistics from 1901 to 2013, showing a clear pattern of declining family sizes alongside increased life expectancy.
Statistical Comparison: Family Size Changes 1901-2013
1901 Statistics:
- Birth rate: 29 per 1000 people annually
- Total fertility rate: 3.5 children per woman
- Death rate: 18.4 per 1000
- Life expectancy: 45 years
2013 Statistics:
- Birth rate: 12 per 1000 people annually
- Total fertility rate: 1.94 children per woman
- Death rate: 9.1 per 1000
- Life expectancy: 78.7 years (men), 82.6 years (women)
Key Change: Families shifted from typically having three or more children to averaging fewer than two children.
The dramatic increase in life expectancy - from just 45 years in 1901 to over 80 years by 2013 - represents one of the most significant social transformations of the modern era, fundamentally altering family dynamics and intergenerational relationships.
Birth and fertility rate patterns
Long-term decline with fluctuations
Birth rates in the UK have experienced a consistent long-term downward trend, though with notable fluctuations. The pattern includes 'baby booms' following both World Wars, when returning soldiers and economic optimism encouraged larger families. However, the overall trajectory remains downward.
Recent slight increases in fertility rates around 2009 can be attributed to specific factors including immigration patterns, as migrant families typically have more children than established UK families. Additionally, older women are increasingly having children, sometimes assisted by reproductive technologies such as IVF, contributing to these modest upward trends.
Natural change and population implications
Natural change represents the difference between birth and death numbers, serving as a key indicator of population growth. When births exceed deaths, populations experience natural increase. The declining birth rate alongside falling death rates creates complex demographic dynamics affecting family structures.
Causes of declining family size
Changes in gender roles
Women's roles have transformed dramatically over recent decades, directly impacting family size decisions. Women increasingly delay childbearing or choose to remain childless, with the average age for first-time mothers rising consistently.
Modern women face different circumstances compared to previous generations. More women pursue higher education and career advancement, making it challenging to balance large families with professional aspirations. The expansion of service sector employment has created more opportunities for women's workforce participation.
Legal equality improvements, including legislation like the Equal Pay Act, have enhanced women's economic independence. This financial autonomy allows women greater choice in family planning decisions rather than following traditional expectations of large families.
Falling infant mortality
The infant mortality rate has declined substantially due to improved living standards, better hygiene and sanitation, enhanced healthcare provision, and increased monitoring of child welfare. The establishment of welfare state provisions has contributed to this improvement.
When infant mortality was high, families often had many children expecting some would not survive to adulthood. As survival rates improved, families could achieve their desired number of children with fewer births, contributing to smaller family sizes.
Economic considerations
Children have shifted from being economic assets to economic burdens in modern society. In earlier periods, children contributed to family income through work and provided security for ageing parents. Today, children represent long-term financial commitments rather than sources of income.
Contemporary legislation restricts child labour and extends education periods, meaning children depend on families for longer periods. Rising living standards and parental expectations about children's opportunities have increased the costs associated with child-rearing. Families recognise that providing adequate resources for children's education, health, and development requires substantial investment, encouraging smaller family sizes.
Death rate changes and family implications
Causes of declining death rates
Several factors have contributed to falling death rates, indirectly affecting family sizes. The reduction in infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, measles, and whooping cough through vaccination programmes and antibiotics has improved survival rates across all age groups.
Medical advances have enhanced treatment options and preventive care. Improved maternity care has reduced deaths during childbirth for both mothers and infants. The establishment of the NHS providing free healthcare at point of delivery has made medical care accessible regardless of economic circumstances.
Government investment in welfare, health and environmental improvements has created better living conditions. The 1944 Beveridge Report led to comprehensive support systems for elderly, sick, and young people, contributing to improved health outcomes across society.
Research perspectives
Research Findings: Causes of Population Growth
McKeown's research (1962): Suggested that population growth during industrialisation resulted primarily from improved living standards, particularly better diet and nutrition, rather than just medical advances. This highlights how overall affluence contributes to demographic changes affecting family structures.
Griffiths and Brock's study (2003): Demonstrated how infectious disease control, improved hygiene, and better nutrition enhanced resistance to illness, supporting the trend towards smaller families with higher survival rates.
Consequences for family structures
Dependency ratio changes
Demographic shifts create changes in the dependency ratio - the relationship between economically productive population members and non-workers such as children and elderly people. Fewer children means reduced numbers of young dependents, but increased life expectancy creates more elderly dependents.
This demographic transition affects family dynamics as fewer working-age family members support growing numbers of elderly relatives. Families experience different care responsibilities, with adult children increasingly managing both child-rearing and elderly parent care simultaneously.
Service provision impacts
Smaller family sizes reduce pressure on educational services, potentially leading to school closures in some areas due to falling child numbers. However, healthcare services face increased demand from ageing populations requiring more medical support.
The emergence of multi-generational families becomes more common as people live longer, creating opportunities for grandparents to play greater roles in their grandchildren's lives while potentially requiring care from their adult children.
Theoretical perspectives and individualisation
Postmodernist sociologists like Beck and Gernsheim (1995) identify individualisation as a key factor in demographic changes. This concept suggests people increasingly prioritise personal needs and choices rather than following traditional norms about family size and structure.
Modern individuals feel less obligated to conform to conventional expectations about having children, instead making personalised decisions based on their circumstances, career goals, and lifestyle preferences. This individualisation process contributes to greater diversity in family forms and sizes.
Contemporary relevance
Economic connections
Family size decisions connect closely to economic conditions. During periods of economic growth, birth rates tend to increase as people feel more confident about supporting children. Conversely, economic downturns typically see declining birth rates as families postpone or limit childbearing due to financial uncertainty.
The cost of raising children has increased substantially, with estimates suggesting £186,000 required to raise a child to age 18. This economic reality influences family size decisions, particularly during periods of economic instability.
Social policy implications
Welfare state development following the Second World War has influenced demographic patterns by providing healthcare, education, and social support that affects both birth and death rates. Free healthcare through the NHS has contributed to improved health outcomes and longer life expectancy, while social support systems have changed the economic calculations families make about children.
Key Points to Remember:
- UK families have become substantially smaller over the past century, with fertility rates falling from 3.5 children per woman (1901) to 1.94 (2013)
- Three main factors drive smaller family sizes: changing gender roles, falling infant mortality, and children becoming economic burdens rather than assets
- Death rates have declined due to medical advances, better living conditions, and welfare state development, leading to longer life expectancy
- Demographic changes create new family dynamics with fewer children but more elderly dependents requiring care
- Individualisation allows people to make personal choices about family size rather than following traditional expectations