Inequality and Age (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Inequality and Age
Age-based inequality represents a significant form of social differentiation in contemporary society. People experience different treatment based on their age, which can range from sensible precautions (such as preventing three-year-olds from riding motorcycles) to unfair discrimination that limits opportunities and life chances.
Age categories are socially constructed
Social construction of age refers to the idea that our understanding of age categories is not fixed or universal. Instead, these categories change over time and vary significantly between different societies and cultures.
Age forms part of an individual's social identity, and people learn through socialisation to accept the norms and values of their society regarding age-appropriate behaviour. This socialisation process shapes how different age groups view themselves and treat one another.
The assumptions we make about when someone becomes an "adult" or when they are considered "old" differ considerably across cultures and historical periods. Additionally, legal frameworks influence how different age groups are treated - for example, people under 18 cannot legally purchase alcohol in the UK.
Bradley (1997) presents an important perspective, arguing that age may not be as significant as other forms of differentiation (such as social class, gender, or ethnicity) because age is temporary. Unlike other characteristics, people know they will not remain in the same age category forever, which may reduce the long-term impact of age-based inequality.
Stratification by age - older people face inequality
Retirement and social isolation
Retirement often brings a significant loss of status, self-respect, and social influence. Many older people become socially isolated due to the decline of the extended family structure, which historically provided support networks for elderly relatives.
Healthcare inequalities
Older people frequently experience unequal access to healthcare. Research indicates that over half of older people report having their symptoms dismissed by medical professionals due to their age.
This age discrimination in healthcare can lead to older people being reluctant to seek medical attention, potentially worsening their health conditions. Healthcare professionals dismissing symptoms based on age alone represents a serious form of institutional discrimination.
Employment discrimination
Historically, older workers have faced workplace inequality, including being forced to retire earlier than desired or being overlooked for promotion and training opportunities due to stereotyped views of their capabilities. The Equality Act (2010) now makes age discrimination illegal, providing legal protection against such treatment.
Educational barriers
Accessing education becomes more challenging for older people, as education policies often focus on those under 25. This means older individuals may struggle to learn new skills or pursue continued learning opportunities, which can be important for maintaining employability and mental wellbeing.
Economic vulnerability
While pensioners were historically more likely to live in poverty than non-pensioners, this situation has improved due to more generous benefits such as winter fuel allowances. However, older people remain vulnerable to money problems, particularly those relying on state pensions. The state pension age continues to rise, meaning people must wait longer to access this support.
Children and young people face inequality
Employment and wage discrimination
Young people typically receive lower wages than older workers, partly reflecting their lack of job experience. The minimum wage is structured with lower rates for workers under 22, and even lower rates for those under 18. Additionally, young people often work in low pay, low responsibility positions with low status.
Around a quarter of a million young people were earning below the national minimum wage in 2001. The introduction of a national living wage (based on the minimum amount needed to live) initially applied only to those over 25, with Income Support paid at lower rates for under-25s.
Educational costs
Further education has become increasingly expensive. The Education Maintenance Allowance (which provided financial support for students in sixth form or college) was removed in England. In higher education, university tuition fees increased dramatically from a maximum of £1,000 per year in 1998 to £9,000 per year by 2012.
Social discrimination
Children and young people face discrimination in society, often being stereotyped by the media as irresponsible and lacking the knowledge and experience to make sound judgements and choices.
Changes to patterns of stratification by age
Extended dependency
Young people today remain dependent on their families for much longer than previous generations. Before 1944, many people left school and began full-time work at the age of 14. Currently, there has been a substantial increase in the number of people pursuing further or higher education rather than entering full-time employment immediately.
Housing challenges
Rising house prices combined with reduced housing benefits mean fewer young people can afford to move out of the family home, prolonging their economic dependence on parents.
Different sociological explanations of age inequality
Functionalist perspective
Functionalists like Parsons (1977) view age inequality as useful to society. They argue that moving through different age groups serves the important function of integrating people into society. The roles associated with different age groups help individuals develop full functioning within society.
Critics argue that functionalism fails to explain the role of older people, who may become disengaged from society rather than remaining integrated.
Marxist perspective
Marxists see age inequality as helping capitalism by providing cheap labour. Capitalism benefits from treating young workers differently because they can be paid less and are easier to hire and fire than mature workers. Society tends not to object to paying young people less, which means more profits can be generated. The low pay of young workers also helps to keep general wages lower.
Phillipson (1982) argues that older people become stigmatised as a burden on society, especially if they are poor. Wealthy older people who can afford comfortable retirement maintain their status in capitalist society, while others become irrelevant and marginalised. Marxist sociologists emphasise that class inequality takes precedence over all other forms of inequality.
Weberian perspective
Weberians explain age inequality by reference to labour market position. Both younger and older people have a poor labour market position compared to people in middle age. For Weberians, social status and political power are also important in social stratification. Both older and younger people have relatively low social status and may find it difficult to influence political decision-making.
Attitudes to old age have changed
UK's ageing population
Between 1971 and 2009, the percentage of people aged over 75 rose from 4.7% to 7.8% (Social Trends 41, 2011). This demographic shift is partly because life expectancy is increasing.
Giddens (1986) argues that longer life expectancy affects family life - people are more likely to have living grandparents or great-grandparents. This also means younger people may need to take responsibility for caring for older relatives for longer periods.
Postmodern perspectives
Postmodernists claim that changing attitudes mean old age is increasingly seen as more "youthful". Featherstone and Hepworth (1993) found that magazines now portray older people playing sport and wearing fashionable clothes. Cosmetic surgery and advances in healthcare and beauty products mean older people have more opportunities to look younger.
The lives of children are changing
Disappearing childhood
Neil Postman (1994) argues that today's children grow up very quickly, so much so that childhood is disappearing. The development of the internet means children and teenagers can now access content that was previously only available to adults.
Toxic childhood
Palmer (2007) argues that rapid childhood development has been harmful for children, making their lives more stressful and sexually active. She suggests that a "toxic childhood" has developed in contemporary society, raising serious concerns about child welfare and development.
Key Points to Remember:
- Age categories are socially constructed and vary between cultures and time periods, making age a temporary form of inequality
- Older people face inequality through retirement status loss, healthcare discrimination, employment barriers, and economic vulnerability
- Young people experience inequality through lower wages, educational costs, extended dependency, and social stereotyping
- Functionalists see age inequality as socially useful, Marxists view it as benefiting capitalism through cheap labour, and Weberians focus on poor labour market positions
- The UK's ageing population and postmodern attitudes are changing how we view old age, while some argue childhood itself is disappearing