Poverty and Contemporary Society (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Absolute and Relative Poverty
Understanding poverty as a concept
Poverty represents one of the most pressing social issues facing governments today, particularly regarding childhood poverty rates. The persistence of poverty across societies demonstrates how social inequalities tend to reproduce themselves, affecting both privileged and disadvantaged groups. Children experiencing poverty face reduced life opportunities and increased likelihood of adult poverty, highlighting how society perpetuates existing inequalities.
The concept of poverty extends beyond simple lack of money - it encompasses how social structures and inequalities create cycles of disadvantage that affect generations. Understanding this broader social dimension is crucial for developing effective anti-poverty policies.
Absolute poverty
Absolute poverty refers to a condition where individuals lack the basic necessities required for physical survival and human dignity. This approach focuses on minimum subsistence needs rather than relative social standing.
Historical development and measurement
Seebohm Rowntree pioneered scientific poverty measurement through three major studies in York (1901, 1941, 1951). He developed the concept of a poverty line by calculating weekly costs for:
- Basic nutritional diet
- Plainest and most economical clothing
- Rent for basic housing
Households with income below these combined costs were classified as living in poverty, unable to maintain effective human life.
Rowntree's Revolutionary Approach
Rowntree's work was groundbreaking because it provided the first systematic, scientific method for measuring poverty. His longitudinal studies spanning 50 years allowed researchers to track how poverty changed over time and demonstrated that poverty was a measurable social phenomenon rather than just individual moral failing.
Contemporary applications
While absolute poverty rarely applies to wealthy developed nations, approximately 2.8 billion people globally survive on less than $2 daily, with 1.2 billion living on less than $1.25 per day (the UN's extreme poverty threshold).
The principles underlying absolute poverty influenced William Beveridge's 1940s social insurance system and continue to inform contemporary benefit calculations, where governments determine minimum living costs.
Advantages of absolute measures
- Provides clear, measurable poverty thresholds
- Aligns with common understanding of poverty as subsistence living
- Enables straightforward comparisons across time periods and countries
- Offers objective measurement criteria
Limitations of absolute measures
Critical Limitations of Absolute Poverty Measures
The main problems with absolute poverty measures include:
- Adopts inflexible "one-size-fits-all" approach ignoring regional variations (housing costs differ significantly between northern and southern England)
- Fails to account for changing social needs over time (items once considered luxuries, such as indoor plumbing or mobile phones, may become necessities)
- Cannot address varying individual circumstances
- Ignores that people just above the poverty line may still experience significant deprivation
- Overlooks how prolonged poverty compounds suffering over time
Many sociologists argue that absolute poverty measures are fundamentally unsociological, failing to recognise how contemporary living standards and social expectations influence individual needs.
Relative poverty
Relative poverty examines poverty's social dimensions, particularly how limited resources lead to social exclusion from mainstream society. This approach connects poverty directly to inequality and social participation.
Townsend's influential definition
Peter Townsend and Abel-Smith claimed to have 'rediscovered' poverty in 1960s post-war Britain. Townsend (1979) defined relative poverty as occurring when:
Townsend's Definition of Relative Poverty
Individuals, families and groups... have resources so seriously below those commanded by the average individual or family that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs, and activities.
This definition was revolutionary because it shifted focus from mere survival to social participation and recognised poverty as a social construct that varies with societal standards.
Townsend developed his deprivation index to measure relative poverty, identifying how people's access to goods and services declined more sharply than their income, particularly around 140% of welfare benefit levels.
Key characteristics
Relative poverty is inherently linked to inequality and represents a dynamic measurement that changes as societies become more affluent. It varies between societies according to local customs and practices, making it a social construction rather than fixed standard.
Advantages of relative measures
- Demonstrates that poverty is socially constructed and varies across contexts
- Provides broader definition linking poverty to lifestyle and social participation
- Reflects varying degrees of deprivation rather than simple above/below categories
- Acknowledges that poverty standards change with societal development
Limitations of relative measures
- Relies on subjective judgements about "normal" social experiences
- Cannot facilitate meaningful comparisons between different societies
- Focuses primarily on private consumption, potentially overlooking public services and environmental factors
- Creates the paradox that even wealthy individuals might feel relatively poor (as illustrated by Amartya Sen's example of feeling poor in Hollywood with only one Cadillac when two was the norm)
Alternative measurements of poverty
Households Below Average Income (HBAI)
Since 1985, the UK government has officially measured poverty using HBAI, defining poor households as those receiving less than 60% of median income. This measurement is used across the EU and Britain for official poverty statistics.
Understanding Poverty Dynamics
HBAI fails to account for poverty depth (how far below the threshold people fall) or duration (how long individuals experience poverty). Understanding poverty dynamics requires examining sustained periods rather than snapshot moments, as living standards deteriorate with prolonged low income.
Budget standard approach
Jonathan Bradshaw and colleagues (1993) developed a "modest-but-adequate budget" approach, involving experts in determining necessary goods and services. Items were included if more than half the population possessed them or considered them necessities, including televisions, mobile phones, second-hand cars, bicycles, annual holidays, and recreational activities.
This differs from Rowntree's physical efficiency approach, which focused solely on survival necessities.
Consensual approach
Mack and Lansley (1985, 1990) defined poverty as "enforced lack of socially perceived necessities" through their Breadline Britain survey (1983). Their approach involved public consultation to identify essential items for modern British life, with necessities defined as items considered essential by more than 50% of respondents.
Democratic Approach to Defining Poverty
This method was praised for using public opinion rather than expert judgement, though researchers still controlled the initial item selection. It represented a more democratic approach to understanding what constitutes poverty in contemporary society.
Severe material deprivation
This measurement complements relative poverty rates by identifying people whose living conditions are severely affected by resource lack. The severe material deprivation rate measures the population proportion unable to afford at least four of these items:
- Rent, mortgage, utility bills or loan repayments
- Adequate home heating
- Unexpected financial expenses
- Regular meat or protein consumption
- One week annual holiday
- Television set, washing machine, car, telephone
UK data shows material deprivation remained relatively stable between 2005-2011, affecting 5.1% of the population in 2011, below the EU average of 8.7%.
Subjective poverty
Though often overlooked by sociologists, subjective poverty definitions provide insights into personal experiences of deprivation. Many people living in poverty resist the "poor" label due to its negative associations and stigmatising effects.
The Language of Poverty
Research by Shildrick and Macdonald (2015) revealed that people experiencing poverty prefer terms like "hard up" or "managing" rather than "poor," emphasising their coping abilities. Gender differences emerge in poverty recognition, with men more likely than women to deny their poverty status, possibly reflecting shame differences.
Contemporary policy applications
Working poverty
The Reality of Working Poverty
Contrary to common assumptions, most poor people in the UK are employed rather than unemployed, highlighting how low wages contribute to poverty persistence. This challenges purely benefit-focused poverty solutions and demonstrates that having a job does not guarantee escape from poverty.
Government targets and challenges
The Child Poverty Act 2010 committed the government to reducing relative child poverty (households below 60% median income) to below 10% by 2020. However, evidence suggests these targets are unattainable, with 3.5 million children expected to be in absolute poverty by 2020.
The Social Mobility and Child Poverty Commission argues that addressing poverty through labour market participation alone appears unrealistic, as many parents remain trapped in low-paid, insecure employment with limited advancement prospects.
Policy impacts
Recent Coalition government policies (2010-2015) disproportionately affected the poorest sections of society despite claims of shared sacrifice. The "bedroom tax" reduced benefits for social housing tenants with spare rooms, particularly impacting vulnerable groups, while the wealthiest experienced income tax reductions.
Key sociologists
Peter Townsend (1928-2009)
Townsend pioneered the relative poverty concept, establishing clear links between poverty and working-class experiences including poor education, unemployment, low wages, and benefit dependency. His research demonstrated that working-class populations face higher risks of redundancy, accidents, and industrial diseases compared to middle-class groups.
David Gordon
Director of the Townsend Centre for International Poverty Research at the University of Bristol, Gordon argues that "poverty, inequality and social exclusion remain the most fundamental problems that people face in the twenty-first century." His work on the Millennium Poverty and Social Exclusion Survey provided quantitative poverty data alongside information about goods and services the British public considers necessary to avoid poverty.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Absolute poverty focuses on basic survival needs using fixed thresholds, while relative poverty examines social exclusion and inequality within specific social contexts
- Townsend's relative poverty definition emphasises exclusion from ordinary social activities due to inadequate resources compared to societal averages
- Multiple measurement approaches exist including HBAI (60% median income), material deprivation indices, and consensual public opinion surveys
- Working poverty affects the majority of poor people in the UK, challenging assumptions about unemployment being the primary cause of poverty
- Contemporary policy debates centre on whether labour market solutions alone can effectively address poverty, with evidence suggesting limited success without addressing low wages and job insecurity