Impact of Worklessness (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Impact of Worklessness
Worklessness affects people's lives in diverse ways, encompassing not only those who are unemployed but also those experiencing underemployment. This includes people who are retired or unable to work due to disabilities. Understanding these impacts requires examining how different groups experience varying levels of exclusion from the labour market.
The changing nature of work
The structure of employment has transformed considerably over recent decades. Ralph Dahrendorf (1959) anticipated that globalisation would lead to a decline in secure, full-time positions across Europe, replaced by part-time, temporary, or seasonal work arrangements. Workers in these positions may not be classified as unemployed, but they experience underemployment when they desire permanent, full-time roles.
The shift from secure, full-time employment to more flexible work arrangements represents one of the most significant changes in the modern labour market, affecting millions of workers across Europe.
Additional factors have contributed to this shift, including the expansion of the secondary labour market (Piore, 1995) and post-Fordist production methods that demand increasingly flexible workforces. This has reduced the availability of secure, long-term positions. Underemployment also affects highly skilled individuals who find themselves working in low-paying or low-skill positions. The informal economy represents another dimension of this changing landscape, encompassing untaxed work within the 'black economy'.
Ethnicity and worklessness
Ethnic minority communities face disproportionate levels of unemployment due to historical discrimination in the labour market. The disparities in unemployment rates reveal significant inequalities that persist in modern Britain.
Statistical Evidence of Employment Inequality (2013)
While UK unemployment stood at 8%, ethnic minority groups experienced significantly higher rates:
- General ethnic minorities: 14% unemployment
- Black ethnic minorities: 17% unemployment
- Pakistani/Bangladeshi ethnic groups: 19% unemployment
Young people (16-24 age group) from ethnic minorities faced even greater challenges:
- Ethnic minority youth: 37% unemployment (increased from 33% in 2012)
- UK population same age group: 21% unemployment
Young people from ethnic minority backgrounds are particularly affected by worklessness, with unemployment rates nearly double that of the general youth population.
Education and worklessness
Graduate unemployment presents a growing concern, with approximately 14 million young unemployed people across Europe. Fagin and Little (1984) established connections between unemployment and family stress, particularly affecting those previously in low-paid positions and long-term unemployed individuals.
Many university graduates find themselves overqualified for available positions, with 2012 data showing graduate unemployment rates of nearly one in ten within six months of graduation. Those who do secure employment often accept non-graduate roles with limited job satisfaction and poor career advancement prospects.
Graduate unemployment represents a significant waste of human capital and educational investment, with many highly qualified individuals unable to utilise their skills effectively in the current labour market.
NEETs (not in employment, education or training) represent another area of concern, typically comprising individuals who leave education early with few qualifications. Research by the University and College Union (2013) involving 1,000 NEETs revealed a desperately isolated group feeling marginalised and lacking control over their lives.
Research Findings on NEETs (University and College Union, 2013)
Key findings from the study of 1,000 NEETs:
- One-third reported rarely leaving their homes
- 38% believed they would never achieve secure employment
- Most felt completely marginalised from society
This situation relates to Steve Craine's (1997) concept of the 'black magic roundabout', describing the cycle of temporary training schemes and unemployment.
Retirement and worklessness
The government's approach to retirement is changing significantly to address demographic and economic pressures. In 2014, the Department for Work and Pensions announced plans to increase the average retirement age by six months annually.
Current and Future Retirement Ages
Current situation:
- Average retirement ages: 64.7 years for men, 63.1 years for women
- State pension ages: 65 for men, 60 for women
Planned changes:
- By 2020: 66 for both genders
- Within 50 years: 70 for both genders
Disengagement theory, developed by Cumming and Henry (1961), represents one of the earliest theories of ageing. It describes how elderly individuals begin to withdraw from their previous social roles as they confront their mortality.
However, Hockey and James (1993) challenge the stigmatising effects of stereotypes on elderly people's lives. While many workers anticipate retirement as earned leisure time, numerous individuals continue seeking employment due to boredom, loneliness, and the need for additional income to supplement inadequate pensions and savings.
Zygmunt Bauman (1988) categorises people who choose to work beyond retirement age as examples of the 'repressed' in consumer society, highlighting how economic necessity can force continued participation in the labour market.
Conversely, financially comfortable retirees, sometimes called 'grey panthers', enjoy high living standards, frequent holidays, and consumer indulgence. Bauman would classify this group as examples of the 'seduced' in consumer society.
Disability and worklessness
People with disabilities face significant barriers in the labour market, experiencing unemployment rates far exceeding those of able-bodied individuals. Their employment situation resembles the Marxist concept of a 'reserve army of labour' - utilised when needed but often among the first to be dismissed when no longer required.
People with disabilities experience unemployment rates of approximately 50%, far exceeding those of able-bodied individuals. This represents a significant waste of human potential and highlights ongoing discrimination in employment practices.
Even during leisure time, disabled people frequently face segregated activities through day centres and social clubs. Until recently, many mainstream leisure facilities, including cinemas and theatres, excluded wheelchair users citing health and safety concerns and arguing they posed fire risks.
Key sociological perspectives
Joan Garrod (2014a) connects the rise of right-wing politics across many European countries to increasing unemployment and perceived lack of future employment prospects among young people. These feelings of hopelessness and despair create alienation, leading people to reject mainstream political parties and join more radical political movements.
Contemporary applications
The Department for Work and Pensions (Barnes et al., 2011) found that worklessness concentrates particularly in certain deprived areas across Great Britain. The report notes that worklessness has become entrenched in some regions despite substantial investment in neighbourhood renewal programmes. It concludes that debate is needed at both national and local levels regarding the causes of worklessness and the nature of regeneration and employment support required to help people return to employment.
Key Points to Remember:
- Underemployment affects those wanting permanent, full-time work but only finding temporary or part-time positions
- Ethnic minorities face double the unemployment rate of the general population, with youth particularly affected
- Graduate unemployment and NEETs represent growing concerns, with many feeling isolated and lacking control
- Retirement ages are rising to 66 by 2020 and 70 within 50 years, while people respond differently to retirement
- Disabled people experience 50% unemployment rates, often treated as a disposable workforce