Defence of the Crusader States (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Defence of the Crusader States
The need for defence
Throughout the 12th century, crusades were primarily launched as military responses to significant losses or threats facing the Latin states of Outremer. These defensive campaigns became necessary when Muslim forces began recapturing territory from Christian crusader kingdoms.
The earliest example of this defensive need emerged in 1119 at the Battle of the Field of Blood. In this disastrous engagement, Roger of Antioch and a large number of his nobles were killed in battle. This defeat left Antioch in a severely weakened military position, prompting European leaders to take action.
In response to this crisis, a Venetian fleet departed in August 1122 to provide military assistance. The following year, Pope Calixtus II officially recognised this expedition as a crusade at a church council. The crusade was authorised to continue until 1125, and participating knights were granted an indulgence (forgiveness of sins).
What counted as a crusade?
The numbering system we use today for the crusades (First, Second, Third, etc.) was created by historians, not by people at the time. Historians have numbered only those expeditions that:
- Attracted large numbers of participants
- Involved forces from multiple countries
- Were intended to reach the Holy Land
However, during the 12th century, many smaller military ventures also received papal approval and offered similar spiritual privileges to participants. These are often not included in the traditional numbering system.
The threat from Zengi and the Second Crusade
Limited success of early defensive crusades
The crusading expeditions of the 1120s and 1130s failed to generate widespread enthusiasm across Europe. It took a more severe crisis to prompt major crusading action.
Zengi's military campaigns
A new and formidable threat emerged with Emir Imad ad-Din Zengi, who served as governor of both Mosul and Aleppo. Beginning in 1135, Zengi launched aggressive campaigns primarily focused around the principality of Antioch. His military successes included:
- 1135: Capture of the significant fortress of Cerep
- 1137: Seizure of Rafaniyah castle
- December 1144: Conquest of Edessa, leaving approximately 15,000 dead
The fall of Edessa
The capture of Edessa in 1144 represented a critical turning point. This was the first major crusader state to fall back into Muslim control, and it demonstrated that Outremer was genuinely at risk of complete collapse.
The fall of Edessa was particularly significant because it shattered the belief that the crusader states were permanent Christian holdings in the Holy Land. This loss proved that Muslim forces could successfully reclaim major territories, setting a precedent that would fuel future conflicts.
Calling the Second Crusade
The loss of Edessa prompted immediate diplomatic action. Bishop Hugh of Jeble and his supporters travelled to Viterbo to meet with the pope. They reached the papal court by November 1145.
Their appeals led Pope Eugenius III to proclaim the Second Crusade through the papal bull Quantum praedecessores. In his surviving letters, the pope explicitly mentioned:
- The loss of Edessa
- Damage to religious relics
- The murder of the city's archbishop
- The capture of surrounding castles
Pope Eugenius made a clear appeal to European Christians: if they wished to preserve Outremer, they must answer the defensive call to arms.
The threat from Saladin and the Third Crusade
The emergence of Saladin
By the 1180s, a new and even more dangerous threat had emerged in the form of Saladin. Initially serving as vizier (chief governor) of Egypt, Saladin later became sultan and began launching invasion attempts against the crusader states from 1170 onwards.
Key term: Vizier
A vizier was the main governor of a country who managed day-to-day affairs. Although chosen by a caliph (Muslim ruler), the vizier typically wielded considerably more actual power.
The catastrophic campaign of 1187
Saladin's 1187 campaign proved devastating for the crusader states. This offensive was itself a response to a Christian attack on a large Muslim caravan. The campaign included several crushing defeats for the Christians:
The Battle of Hattin (July 1187):
- The Franks (crusaders) suffered a catastrophic military defeat near the hills of Hattin
- King Guy of Jerusalem was captured
- The precious relic of the True Cross was seized by Muslim forces
- Pope Urban III reportedly died from shock upon hearing the news
The Battle of Hattin's devastating impact
The Battle of Hattin wasn't just a military defeat—it was a complete catastrophe that destroyed the crusader states' ability to defend themselves. The loss of so many knights and nobles, combined with the capture of the True Cross, left the Franks both militarily and spiritually broken. This single battle paved the way for Saladin's rapid conquest of Jerusalem and surrounding territories.
Key term: Franks
Franks was the name commonly used to refer to crusaders, derived from the fact that many First Crusaders had connections to various French territories such as Normandy.
Key term: The True Cross
The True Cross was an extremely important relic believed to be the actual cross upon which Jesus was crucified. It had been captured by the Franks during the First Crusade, and its loss was seen as spiritually catastrophic.
The fall of Jerusalem (October 1187):
- By October, Jerusalem itself had fallen to Saladin
- The Franks were forced to leave the holy city
- They could only depart after paying a massive ransom of 30,000 bezants
Key term: Bezant
A bezant was a gold coin used by Greeks that served as standard currency throughout the Mediterranean world.
Christian losses
Following Saladin's victories, Christian control in the Holy Land was reduced to just three locations:
- Tyre
- Tripoli
- Antioch
These remaining territories would certainly fall if no military assistance arrived from Europe.
The extent of Saladin's conquests:
In less than a year, Saladin transformed the political landscape of the Holy Land. What had been four major crusader states was now reduced to three isolated cities. The loss of Jerusalem—the spiritual heart of the crusader movement—represented both a military and symbolic defeat that threatened the very existence of Christian presence in the region.
Calling the Third Crusade
The catastrophic losses prompted Pope Gregory VIII to issue a call for the defence of Outremer through the papal bull Audita tremendi. The timeline was:
- 27 October 1187: First issued after receiving reports of Jerusalem's imminent fall from leaders such as Patriarch Eraclius
- Three months later: Reissued by Pope Celestine III after the loss of Jerusalem was confirmed
This call generated a substantial response across Europe. For example, in September 1189, approximately 12,000 Frisians and Danes departed to provide military assistance. The Third Crusade was thus launched as another holy war responding to critical territorial losses.
Exam focus
Understanding the pattern
All three major crusades discussed here (1119-1125, Second Crusade, Third Crusade) followed a similar pattern:
Pattern of Defensive Crusades:
- Military defeat in the East - A significant loss occurs (e.g., Battle of the Field of Blood, fall of Edessa, Battle of Hattin)
- Appeal to the pope - Local leaders or survivors travel to Rome to seek help
- Papal proclamation of a crusade - The pope issues a papal bull declaring a crusade
- Promise of spiritual rewards - Indulgence (forgiveness of sins) is offered to participants
- Recruitment of forces from across Europe - Knights and soldiers gather from multiple countries
Key dates to remember
Essential Timeline:
- 1119: Battle of the Field of Blood
- 1144: Fall of Edessa to Zengi
- 1145: Second Crusade proclaimed
- July 1187: Battle of Hattin
- October 1187: Jerusalem falls to Saladin
- October 1187: Third Crusade proclaimed
Typical exam questions might ask you to:
- Explain why defensive concerns were important causes of 12th-century crusades
- Assess the relative importance of different threats (Zengi vs Saladin)
- Analyse how the papacy used losses in Outremer to motivate crusaders
- Evaluate whether religious or political motivations were more important in defensive crusades
Common pitfalls to avoid:
- Don't confuse the different crusades or their causes—each was triggered by a specific military crisis
- Remember that each crusade was a response to a specific event, not a general desire for expansion
- Don't overlook the role of the papacy in officially proclaiming crusades—papal approval was essential
- Be specific about dates and locations rather than making vague statements
- Avoid treating all crusades as the same—each had unique circumstances and outcomes
Key Points to Remember:
- 12th-century crusades were primarily defensive responses to Muslim military victories in Outremer
- The Second Crusade (1145) was called after Zengi captured Edessa in 1144, killing around 15,000 people
- The Third Crusade (1187) responded to Saladin's devastating campaign, including the Battle of Hattin and the fall of Jerusalem
- Papal bulls such as Quantum praedecessores and Audita tremendi officially proclaimed these crusades and granted spiritual rewards
- Each crisis followed a pattern: military defeat → appeal to pope → papal proclamation → European military response