Summary (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Crusades, c1095–1204
Introduction: conquest, control and resistance
The crusading movement emerged from a brutal and violent medieval world. Life expectancy was low, opportunities for social advancement were limited, and religion dominated every aspect of society. The papacy (the office of the Pope) created and formalised the concept of crusading as a way to direct European aggression toward a religious purpose. This resulted in the conquest of parts of the Near East and Christian control of the Holy Land by western Europeans.
"The crusades were born in a brutal, violent world where life expectancy was low, prospects for advancement poor and religion ever present."
The crusader concept was created and formalised by the papacy in an attempt to channel aggression into a religious cause.
However, this control became a fiercely contested issue. The pope, European nobles, kings and emperors all attempted to shape the crusades and the crusader states according to their own interests, with varying degrees of success. They faced resistance from the Islamic world, which was initially weak but grew into a serious challenge throughout the 12th century.
This was a world where:
- Crusading knights, leading thousands of followers, fought to conquer the Holy Land
- Crusading nobles, driven by desires for power, tried to control new territories in God's name
- Muslim forces fought to resist and expel their new Christian enemies
The political landscape of Europe and the Near East
Understanding the crusades requires knowledge of the complex political geography of the period. Europe and the Mediterranean world looked very different from today's nation states.
The political fragmentation of Europe in the medieval period meant that the crusades were not unified national efforts, but rather collections of nobles, knights, and their followers from various regions with different motivations and loyalties.
Italy
Italy was divided into a series of rival city states rather than being unified under one ruler. Several crusades were proclaimed from Italian cities.
France
France had a weak king but a powerful nobility who were accustomed to warfare. French nobles played a leading role in the crusading movement.
The Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Emperor ruled over the German or western Empire. The emperor was engaged in an ongoing power struggle with the pope for control over Christian Europe.
The Byzantine Empire
What remained of the ancient Roman Empire in the East was centered on the famous city of Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire controlled Greece, Thrace, and a small portion of western Asia Minor. The Byzantines were Christian but followed different practices from western European (Latin) Christianity.
The Byzantine Empire was Christian but practiced Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which differed significantly from the Roman Catholic Christianity of western Europe. This religious division would later contribute to the tragedy of the Fourth Crusade's attack on Constantinople.
The crusader states
It was these European powers that joined together to create and control the crusader states in the Near East. These four states were:
- Edessa
- Antioch
- Tripoli
- Jerusalem
The crusader territories were collectively known as Outremer (meaning "overseas").
Memory Aid: The Four Crusader States
Remember the four crusader states with EJAT:
- Edessa
- Jerusalem
- Antioch
- Tripoli
The chronological development of the crusades, 1095–1204
The First Crusade (1095–1099)
The crusading era began in 1095 when Pope Urban II delivered a sermon at the Council of Clermont. This marked the start of the First Crusade and the conquest of the Near East. The crusade culminated in the capture of Jerusalem in July 1099 by Godfrey of Bouillon.
Pope Urban II's sermon at Clermont was a pivotal moment in medieval history. His call for a holy war to liberate Jerusalem resonated across Europe, attracting nobles, knights, and common people who saw crusading as both a religious duty and an opportunity for adventure and advancement.
Consolidation of the crusader states (early 12th century)
Following the initial conquest, the early 12th century saw a period of consolidation. In 1100, Baldwin, Count of Edessa, was crowned King Baldwin I of Jerusalem and began strengthening Outremer's territories.
During this period, military religious orders were established:
- 1119: A group of knights led by Hugh of Payns came together to protect pilgrims traveling to Jerusalem. They became known as the Knights Templar
- 1136: The Hospitaller movement became militarized when they were given the Castle of Beitgibelin
The military religious orders were unique organizations that combined monastic vows with military service. Knights took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, but instead of living in monasteries, they defended the Holy Land and protected Christian pilgrims.
Muslim resistance and the Second Crusade (1144–1148)
Muslim resistance to Christian control grew steadily stronger:
- 1144: Emir Imad ad-Din Zengi, ruler of Aleppo and Mosul, captured the city of Edessa from the Christians
- 1146: Nur ad-Din came to power as ruler of Aleppo after Zengi's murder
These losses prompted the Second Crusade, launched in 1145 by Pope Eugenius III who issued the papal bull Quantum praedecessores. However, the crusade failed:
- 1148: The Siege of Damascus failed, and the Second Crusade ended without recovering Edessa
The fall of Edessa in 1144 was a major turning point. It was the first crusader state to be lost and demonstrated that Muslim forces were becoming organized and powerful enough to challenge Christian control. This loss shocked Christian Europe and prompted the Second Crusade.
Saladin's rise and the Third Crusade (1169–1192)
The balance of power shifted decisively toward the Muslims:
- 1169: Saladin became vizier of Egypt after power was seized from the Fatimid vizier Shawar
- 1187: Saladin achieved a crushing victory at the Battle of Hattin and captured Jerusalem
The loss of Jerusalem shocked Christian Europe. Pope Gregory VIII announced the Third Crusade in his papal bull Audita tremendi in 1187.
The Battle of Hattin (1187) was one of the most decisive battles in crusading history. Saladin's victory destroyed the military power of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and led directly to the recapture of the holy city. This defeat sent shockwaves through Christian Europe and prompted the Third Crusade.
The Third Crusade achieved limited success:
- 1191: The Siege of Acre ended with the Muslim garrison surrendering to the crusaders
- 1192: Rather than attack Jerusalem, the crusaders decided to withdraw. The Third Crusade ended without recovering the holy city
The Fourth Crusade and conquest of Constantinople (1198–1204)
Pope Innocent III launched the Fourth Crusade in 1198 with the fully developed concept of a plenary indulgence (complete forgiveness of sins for crusaders).
The Fourth Crusade took an unexpected turn:
- 1203: Instead of heading to the Holy Land, the crusaders attacked Constantinople and forced Emperor Alexius III to flee
- 1204: Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Emperor of Romania, the new empire created from the conquered Byzantine Empire
The Fourth Crusade represents one of the greatest ironies in crusading history. Instead of fighting Muslims to recover the Holy Land, the crusaders attacked and conquered Constantinople, the capital of the Christian Byzantine Empire. This catastrophic diversion weakened both the crusading movement and Christian power in the East.
The Fourth Crusade failed in its goal of recovering the crusader states but unexpectedly created a new Latin empire in the East.
Key events: chronological timeline
Pre-crusade context (969–1095)
- 969: The Fatimid Dynasty took control of Egypt and parts of Syria and Palestine
- 1037: The Seljuk tribe emerged and took control of Khorasan, beginning to seize territory from the Fatimids
- 1071: The Battle of Manzikert - the Byzantine emperor was defeated and captured by the Seljuk Turks. This decisive defeat weakened Byzantine control of Asia Minor
- 1074: Pope Gregory VII failed to launch his own holy war to help eastern Christians, though he offered to lead 50,000 volunteers toward the Holy Land
The Battle of Manzikert (1071) was a catastrophic defeat for the Byzantine Empire. The capture of the emperor himself by the Seljuk Turks demonstrated Byzantine weakness and left Asia Minor vulnerable to Turkish expansion. This defeat was one of the key factors that eventually led the Byzantine emperor to request western military assistance, which helped inspire the First Crusade.
The First Crusade era (1095–1119)
- 1095: Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont
- July 1099: Jerusalem was captured by Godfrey of Bouillon
- 1100: Baldwin, Count of Edessa, was crowned King Baldwin I of Jerusalem and began consolidating Outremer's territories
- 1119: The Knights Templar were formed under Hugh of Payns to protect pilgrims
Consolidation and early challenges (1136–1153)
- 1136: The Hospitaller movement became militarized and received the Castle of Beitgibelin
- 1144: Emir Imad ad-Din Zengi captured Edessa from the Christians
- 1145: Pope Eugenius III launched the Second Crusade, issuing Quantum praedecessores
- 1146: Nur ad-Din became ruler of Aleppo after Zengi's murder
- 1148: The Siege of Damascus failed; the Second Crusade ended
- 1153: The last important port of Jerusalem, Ascalon, was captured by the Franks with help from European pilgrims
Growing Muslim resistance (1169–1174)
- 1169: Saladin became vizier of Egypt after his predecessor usurped power from the Fatimid vizier Shawar
- 1174: Baldwin IV, a leper, was crowned King of Jerusalem, but Raymond of Tripoli acted as regent on his behalf
The Third Crusade era (1187–1192)
- 1187: The Battle of Hattin and Saladin's capture of Jerusalem
- 1187: Pope Gregory VIII announced the Third Crusade in his papal bull Audita tremendi
- 1191: The Siege of Acre ended with the Muslim garrison surrendering
- 1192: The crusaders withdrew from Jerusalem without attacking; the Third Crusade ended
Memory Aid: Major Muslim Victories
Three decisive Muslim victories that changed the course of the crusades:
- Manzikert 1071 - Byzantine defeat that opened Asia Minor to Turkish expansion
- Edessa 1144 - First crusader state lost, prompting the Second Crusade
- Hattin 1187 - Saladin's crushing victory that led to the recapture of Jerusalem
The Fourth Crusade (1198–1204)
- 1198: Pope Innocent III launched the Fourth Crusade with the fully developed idea of a plenary indulgence
- 1203: The crusaders attacked Constantinople and forced Emperor Alexius III to flee
- 1204: Baldwin of Flanders was crowned Emperor of Romania, the former Byzantine Empire
Key figures
Christian leaders
- Pope Urban II (1095): Proclaimed the First Crusade at Clermont
- Pope Eugenius III (1145): Launched the Second Crusade
- Pope Gregory VIII (1187): Announced the Third Crusade
- Pope Innocent III (1198): Launched the Fourth Crusade
- Godfrey of Bouillon (1099): Captured Jerusalem during the First Crusade
- Baldwin I (1100–): First King of Jerusalem, began consolidation of Outremer
- Baldwin IV (1174–): Leper king of Jerusalem
- Raymond of Tripoli: Acted as regent for Baldwin IV
- Hugh of Payns (1119): Founded the Knights Templar
- Baldwin of Flanders (1204): Crowned Emperor of Romania
Memory Aid: Muslim Resistance Leaders
The three key Muslim leaders who organized resistance against the crusaders followed each other in succession:
ZNS - Zengi → Nur ad-Din → Saladin
Each built upon the previous leader's achievements, with Saladin ultimately achieving the greatest success by recapturing Jerusalem.
Muslim leaders
- Emir Imad ad-Din Zengi: Ruler of Aleppo and Mosul, captured Edessa in 1144
- Nur ad-Din (1146–): Succeeded Zengi as ruler of Aleppo, strengthened Muslim resistance
- Saladin (1169–): Became vizier of Egypt, won Battle of Hattin, recaptured Jerusalem in 1187
Military religious orders
- Knights Templar (founded 1119): Military order dedicated to protecting pilgrims to Jerusalem
- Hospitallers (militarized 1136): Originally a charitable order, became a military force
Key Takeaways
Essential Points to Remember:
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The crusades were created by the papacy to channel European violence into religious warfare aimed at controlling the Holy Land
-
Pope Urban II's sermon at Clermont in 1095 launched the First Crusade, leading to the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099
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Four crusader states were established in the Near East: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem (collectively called Outremer)
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Muslim resistance grew steadily throughout the 12th century under leaders like Zengi, Nur ad-Din, and especially Saladin
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The Second Crusade (1145–1148) failed to recover Edessa, and the Third Crusade (1187–1192) failed to recapture Jerusalem after Saladin's victory at Hattin
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The Fourth Crusade (1198–1204) completely diverted from its original goal and instead conquered Constantinople, creating the Latin Empire of Romania
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Military religious orders like the Knights Templar and Hospitallers played crucial roles in defending crusader territories
Key Dates to Remember:
- 1095 - First Crusade proclaimed
- 1145 - Second Crusade launched
- 1187 - Battle of Hattin and loss of Jerusalem
- 1198 - Fourth Crusade launched