Lack of Support for the States from Byzantium and Europe (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

Lack of Support for the States from Byzantium and Europe

The crusader states in Outremer relied heavily on external support for survival, but this support was often inconsistent and insufficient. The relationships with both the Byzantine Empire and western Europe fluctuated dramatically throughout the 12th century, with serious consequences for the defence of the Christian territories.

Byzantine support, 1099–1144

The Antioch dispute

The relationship between the crusader states and the Byzantine Empire was strained from the very beginning, primarily due to disagreements over the principality of Antioch. Both Emperor Alexius Comnenus and his successor, John Comnenus, believed they had authority over the prince of Antioch as overlords.

In 1108, Alexius forced Bohemond I of Antioch to acknowledge Byzantine overlordship through the Treaty of Devol. However, the Frankish rulers of Antioch frequently ignored their supposed loyalty to the Byzantine emperor, creating ongoing tension.

Military conflicts

Between 1099 and 1144, the Byzantine Empire launched six invasion attempts into Antioch through Cilicia. One notable example occurred in 1137, when John Comnenus attacked Antioch because he had been excluded from discussions about who would marry Princess Constance. This aggressive approach demonstrated the poor state of Franco-Byzantine relations during this period.

Temporary cooperation

Despite these tensions, both the Byzantines and Franks shared a common enemy: the Turks. This mutual concern led to an alliance of convenience in 1137 between Raymond of Poitiers (Prince of Antioch) and John Comnenus.

End of the alliance

This cooperation came to an abrupt end in 1143 when John Comnenus died and was replaced by Manuel Comnenus. Manuel was angry about the Frankish occupation of fortresses in Cilicia, which soured relations once again.

Improving relations with Byzantium, 1158–80

After 1158, relations between the Byzantine Empire and the crusader states improved significantly. This warming of relations was marked by several important developments.

Territorial agreements

Baldwin III, King of Jerusalem, sold the remaining fortresses in Edessa to the Byzantines in the late 1150s. This gesture helped to ease tensions and demonstrated a willingness to cooperate.

Marriage alliances

A series of strategic marriage alliances cemented the improved relationship:

Military cooperation

The improved relationship led to practical military support from the Byzantines for campaigns that did not directly benefit Byzantine territorial interests:

Reversal of relations, 1180–92

Abrupt change in policy

The good relationship between the Byzantine Empire and the crusader states ended suddenly when Emperor Manuel died in 1180. He was replaced by Emperor Andronicus I in 1182.

Andronicus's priorities

Andronicus had no interest in maintaining relations with the Franks for several reasons:

• His empire faced serious internal problems, including riots and dissent
• There had been a disruptive period of regency before his accession
• He needed to focus on consolidating his own position and power

Alliance with Saladin

At some point in the mid-1180s, Andronicus entered into an alliance with Saladin, the Muslim leader. This was a dramatic shift that had severe consequences for the crusader states.

Consequences

The decline in Franco-Byzantine relations meant:

• No further military support was forthcoming from the Byzantine Empire
• Saladin could now pursue his campaign against Outremer with renewed energy and focus
• The crusader states lost a potential ally against Muslim expansion

European support between the crusades

Limited support

Europe was essential to the survival of the crusader states – after all, it was Europeans who had established Christian rule in the region during the First Crusade (1096-1102). However, support from Europe was very limited between the major crusades of 1096-1102, 1147-49 and 1189-92.

Campaigns that did receive support

Despite the general lack of support, some European contingents did assist Outremer between the major crusades:

1177-78 campaign:

• Count Philip of Flanders, the count of Champagne and Peter of Courtenay participated
• Outcome: Campaigns in Homs, Hama and Habis

1183 campaign:

• Duke of Brabant and Ralph of Mauléon arrived with a small force
• Outcome: Occupied and secured Tubania after Saladin had left and tried to retake it in October 1183

European deafness to appeals

Throughout the 12th century, there were numerous examples of European rulers ignoring appeals for help from the crusader states.

Between 1157 and 1184:

• At least seven crusade letters were authorised by the pope
• European nobles and their knights ignored these appeals
• No Third Crusade was launched until 1189

Failed embassies

Even when rulers of Outremer sent personal embassies to appeal for help, they achieved little success.

Continued obstacles:

• In 1173, the rebellion of Henry II's family ended any hope that he would help the crusader states
• In 1171, King Amalric sent another embassy to the West, but it failed
• This led him to try establishing relations with the Assassins, a local Muslim group

Recognition of reality

The rulers of Outremer realised they would have to find ways to handle the Muslim threat themselves. It became clear that only dramatic events, like the capture of Jerusalem, would trigger large-scale European help.

Effects of limited support

The main consequence of inadequate European support was that the borders of the crusader states began to contract during the second half of the 12th century.

Territorial losses

By the 1170s, the Christians had lost control of any land east of the River Orontes as a result of repeated Muslim invasions. Specific examples of losses include:

In Tripoli (1160s):

• The castles of Moinetre, Akkar (Gibelcar), Chastel Blanc and Aryma were lost to Nur ad-Din
• Count Raymond III was imprisoned in Aleppo

In 1174:

• While the king of Jerusalem was on campaign in Egypt, Nur ad-Din attacked and captured Banyas

In 1179:

• The Franks were defeated in the forest of Banyas and Marj Ayun
• Saladin destroyed the castle at Jacob's Ford

Insufficient military resources

These examples demonstrate that without substantial support from Europe, the rulers of Outremer simply did not have enough forces to maintain their defences.

This combination of inadequate knightly resources, European unwillingness to help, and a deteriorating relationship with the Byzantines enabled Saladin to penetrate the defences of Outremer successfully in the 1180s.