The Siege of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf, 1189–91 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Siege of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf, 1189–91
Saladin's position after 1187
1187 was a highly successful year for Saladin, with the capture of Jerusalem representing his greatest achievement. However, after this victory, Saladin began to face significant problems that would ultimately help the Third Crusade achieve success at Acre.
Problems facing Saladin after 1187
Loss of troops
After the rapid pace of the 1187 campaigns, military operations slowed considerably in 1188. Many of Saladin's allies wished to return home with their forces:
- Taqi al-Din went back to Mosul, taking troops from the surrounding region
- al-Adil returned to Egypt with his forces
- al-Zahir departed to Aleppo
This meant Saladin had fewer soldiers available for future campaigns.
The departure of Saladin's key allies was not a sign of disloyalty, but rather a reflection of the feudal nature of medieval Islamic military organization. Local emirs typically provided troops for specific campaigns before returning to govern their own territories.
Funding difficulties
Maintaining armies in the field was extremely expensive for Saladin and his emirs (military commanders). Imad al-Din, one of Saladin's key advisors, complained in early 1189 that he faced serious financial difficulties. Saladin himself estimated his daily military expenditure at around 20,000 dinars during the Acre campaign.
Frankish resistance
While Jerusalem had surrendered quickly, other Christian territories continued to resist Saladin's forces. This forced Saladin to abandon certain sieges and stretched his resources. For example:
- In 1188, a Sicilian fleet arrived and prevented Saladin from capturing Tripoli
- Various Christian fortifications held out, requiring Saladin to divide his attention
These three interconnected problems—loss of troops, funding difficulties, and continued Frankish resistance—would prove crucial in allowing the crusaders to establish a foothold at Acre. Saladin's inability to maintain a concentrated military force over extended periods created the opportunity for Christian recovery.
The beginning of the siege of Acre (1189)
Acre was a strategically vital port city that Saladin had captured in 1187. Its importance lay in its potential to serve as a naval base, allowing the Franks to supply a campaign to regain the kingdom of Jerusalem.
King Guy's siege begins
In August 1189, King Guy of Jerusalem initiated the siege of Acre with troops that had survived or avoided the Battle of Hattin (1187). The crusader forces camped outside the city walls and began their blockade.
Saladin's response
Saladin initially hesitated, concerned that the siege might be a deliberate trick or diversion. However, he came to Acre's rescue in September 1189.
Key events of September-October 1189:
- 15 September 1189: Muslim forces launched an attack on Guy's camp but failed to destroy it
- 4 October 1189: The crusaders counter-attacked Saladin's forces but also made no progress
- 23 October 1189: With both sides entrenched in their positions, Saladin requested help from his allies in northern Syria and Iraq
The requested reinforcements did not arrive until early summer 1190, and Saladin delayed further major action. This created a stalemate where neither side could make decisive progress—a pattern that would characterize the entire Acre campaign.
Why the 1190 campaign to relieve Acre failed
By November 1190, after another year of campaigning, Saladin remained in essentially the same situation as in October 1189. Both sides were trapped in stalemate. The primary reason for this lack of progress was the failure to coordinate Muslim allied forces effectively.
Problems with coordination of forces
Zangi of Sinjar
- Arrived too early in 1190 for Saladin to make effective use of his troops
- His forces were sent back home as a result
Kilij Arslan
- Had to redirect his troops northwards to deal with the threat from Frederick Barbarossa's German crusaders
- Did not arrive at Acre until October 1190, far later than needed
Saladin's own delays
- Focused on conquering Beaufort Castle first
- This kept him out of the Acre campaign until the castle fell on 2 April 1190
Poor Coordination: A Critical Weakness
The lack of coordination among Muslim forces was a fundamental problem that plagued the entire Acre campaign. Allies arrived too early and were sent home, or arrived too late to be effective. This disorganization gave the crusaders the time they desperately needed to consolidate their position and await European reinforcements.
Consequences of the delays
The delays had two major effects on Saladin's position:
Financial strain
Keeping troops in the field was enormously expensive. Saladin calculated in a letter to an ally that his daily expenditure was around 20,000 dinars. This financial burden made it increasingly difficult to maintain the siege.
No major action until July 1190
In May 1190, a frustrated Zangi rejoined Saladin, but troop numbers remained insufficient. Major action did not restart until 25 July, when the Franks launched an attack on the Muslim camp.
The battle that followed saw significant casualties:
- One Muslim source reported around 12,000 Franks were killed
- However, Saladin failed to exploit this victory
- The crusader camp around Acre was given the time it needed to recover
End of the 1190 campaign
By the close of the campaigning season, it was clear that Guy's siege would continue:
- 20 October 1190: Saladin began to withdraw to a more secure position
- 13 November 1190: The Franks attempted a march to take Haifa, but this was intercepted by Saladin's forces
- Most Franks escaped, but Haifa remained safe
- 14 November 1190: Both sides ceased operations for the season
Critically, Saladin had given the Third Crusade another year to arrive with reinforcements. This delay would prove decisive in determining the outcome of the siege.
The fall of Acre (1191)
In late May 1191, Saladin received news that the siege at Acre had intensified. Despite being some distance away, he made the journey there within a week. This would be his third year encamped around the city, but also his last at the siege.
The final collapse
By 12 July 1191, the Muslim garrison had surrendered. This represented a major defeat for Saladin and a turning point in the Third Crusade.
Main causes of Saladin's failure
The breathing space allowed Guy to strengthen his position
The 2-year period had allowed King Guy to recover from the disasters of 1187. His forces were now larger, better supplied, and more confident.
European support arrived
Guy now had crucial support from two powerful European monarchs:
- King Philip II of France
- King Richard I of England (Richard the Lionheart)
This European support provided Guy with the military strength necessary to capture Acre.
The arrival of Richard I and Philip II transformed the balance of power at Acre. These experienced monarchs brought not only fresh troops but also sophisticated siege equipment, military expertise, and the financial resources to sustain a prolonged campaign.
Saladin had fewer troops
In 1191, not all of Saladin's allies rejoined him for the campaign. For example:
- The army from Diyr Bakr was occupied elsewhere and could not return
- This left Saladin with insufficient forces to break the siege
The Christian blockade was effective
The crusaders established a blockade of Acre, primarily by land and partly by sea. This prevented supplies from entering the city, causing the Muslim garrison to starve. Meanwhile, the Franks had fresh troops and a regular supply line, giving them a decisive advantage.
Terms of surrender
With his position weakening, Saladin was forced to seek terms from the Franks. The agreement required:
Saladin's obligations:
- Pay 200,000 dinars
- Return the relic of the True Cross (captured at Hattin)
- Free Christian prisoners
Christian obligations:
- Release Muslim prisoners
This truce led to Richard I's infamous massacre of 2,700 Muslim prisoners when Saladin allegedly failed to meet the terms quickly enough. However, it also marked the start of a new chapter for the Franks in Outremer (the crusader states).
The Battle of Arsuf (1191)
Following the fall of Acre, King Richard I's crusaders, supported by King Guy and other Frankish allies, began their march to retake Jaffa in late August 1191.
The battle
Near Arsuf, the crusaders were intercepted by Saladin's forces and forced into battle. The engagement ended with Saladin's army retreating—a significant Frankish victory.
Reasons for the Frankish victory
The victory at Arsuf was largely the result of Richard I's leadership during the battle itself. Richard demonstrated superior tactical command and kept his forces disciplined under pressure.
Consequences for Saladin
The effects of the defeat at Arsuf were profound for Saladin:
Richard's army remained undefeated
Despite Saladin deploying his entire force of around 30,000 men, he was unable to defeat Richard's army. This demonstrated the military superiority of the crusader forces under strong leadership.
Loss of coastal control
As a consequence of the defeat, Saladin was unable to prevent:
- Richard from recapturing Jaffa
- The Christian hold on the coast being secured
This meant the crusaders now controlled key ports and supply routes along the Palestinian coast.
The Battle of Arsuf demonstrated that even with numerical advantage, Saladin could not overcome the combination of Richard I's tactical brilliance and the disciplined fighting ability of the crusader heavy cavalry. This battle effectively ended any realistic chance of Saladin driving the crusaders back into the sea.
Saladin's success in keeping Muslim control of Jerusalem in 1192
Despite his setbacks at Acre and Arsuf, Saladin successfully prevented the crusaders from recapturing Jerusalem. This achievement was the result of a strategic shift in his approach.
Change in strategy
Saladin had suffered in 1191 because he divided his efforts across multiple targets throughout the remnants of Outremer. This dispersal of forces had given the Franks the time they needed to capture Acre and Jaffa.
To prevent the same outcome in Jerusalem, Saladin focused his efforts solely on the defence of the city. It was this almost exclusive emphasis on Jerusalem's protection that allowed it to remain in Muslim hands.
Preparation for Richard I's first attempt on Jerusalem
Saladin implemented a comprehensive defensive strategy:
Preventing further Frankish gains
Saladin's first move was to prevent the Franks from acquiring any more Muslim strongholds. This led him to take drastic action:
- Destroyed the fortifications at Ascalon
- Demolished the castle at Ramla
By destroying these fortifications himself, Saladin ensured they could not be used as bases for a crusader advance on Jerusalem. This scorched-earth tactic was a deliberate sacrifice of valuable military assets to protect the more important objective of Jerusalem.
Building up Jerusalem's defences
Saladin then began strengthening Jerusalem's fortifications:
- Izz al-Din sent Saladin 50 masons to help build defences to the north of the city
- These masons were supported by 2,000 prisoners who provided the main labour force
- Work focused on the most vulnerable approaches to the city
Requesting reinforcements
At the same time, Saladin began requesting troops to assist in the city's defence:
- The first reinforcements arrived from Egypt on 22 December 1191
- These fresh troops helped improve the morale of Saladin's army
- The army's morale had been severely drained by nearly six years of continuous campaigning
This combination of destroyed outlying fortifications, strengthened city defences, and fresh troops created a defensive position too strong for Richard to overcome. As a result, Jerusalem remained in Muslim control—Saladin's most important strategic achievement of the Third Crusade.
Key Points to Remember:
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Saladin faced three major problems after 1187: loss of troops (allies went home), funding difficulties (expensive to maintain armies at around 20,000 dinars per day), and continued Frankish resistance in various territories.
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The siege of Acre lasted from August 1189 to July 1191 and ended in a major defeat for Saladin, primarily because the 2-year delay allowed the crusaders to strengthen their position and receive European reinforcements from Richard I and Philip II.
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The Battle of Arsuf (1191) was a decisive Frankish victory that demonstrated Richard I's superior military leadership and prevented Saladin from stopping the Christian recapture of the Palestinian coast.
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Poor coordination of Muslim forces was a critical weakness throughout the Acre campaign, with allies arriving too early, too late, or not at all, preventing Saladin from mounting effective relief operations.
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Saladin successfully defended Jerusalem in 1192 by focusing exclusively on the city's defence, destroying outlying fortifications (Ascalon and Ramla), strengthening Jerusalem's walls with 50 masons and 2,000 prisoners, and concentrating his remaining forces rather than dividing them across multiple objectives.