The End of Papal Power in England Under Henry VIII (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The End of Papal Power in England Under Henry VIII
Background to the break with Rome
By the late 1520s, Henry VIII faced a serious personal and political crisis. Using a passage from the Old Testament book of Leviticus, Henry convinced himself that his marriage to Catherine of Aragon had never been valid because she had previously been married to his elder brother Arthur. This argument potentially allowed Henry to seek a papal annulment of his marriage.
Key term: Annulment
An annulment means that a marriage has never been legally valid. This is different from a divorce, which ends a marriage but acknowledges it was legal whilst it lasted. Importantly, any children of an annulled marriage would be considered illegitimate, which is why Catherine feared for her daughter Mary's status.
The "Great Matter" (1527-1529)
In 1527, Cardinal Wolsey was given responsibility for overseeing the king's "Great Matter" - the attempt to annul his marriage to Catherine. However, a combination of circumstances prevented Henry from achieving his goal.
Obstacles to the annulment
Catherine's resistance
- Catherine was prepared to fight the proceedings
- She feared for her daughter Mary's status if the marriage was annulled
- She had powerful allies both at court and abroad
The influence of Charles V
- In 1527, Catherine appealed to her nephew, Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), for help
- Charles had been dominant in European politics since his victory over France at the Battle of Pavia (1525)
- In May 1527, Charles' troops attacked Rome itself (the Sack of Rome)
- This meant Pope Clement VII was directly under Charles' control
- The pope was very unlikely to grant an annulment that would upset both Catherine and Charles
The Sack of Rome and its Impact
The Sack of Rome in May 1527 was a turning point in Henry's quest for an annulment. With Pope Clement VII directly under Charles V's control, it became virtually impossible for Henry to obtain papal approval for his annulment through traditional means. This event was crucial in pushing Henry toward the radical solution of breaking with Rome entirely.
Delays and frustration
- In 1528, Clement sent his legate (representative), Cardinal Campeggio, to England to help Wolsey hear the case
- However, Campeggio was under instructions to delay the proceedings
- During 1527-29, these problems meant that Wolsey's attempts to find a solution were frustrated
- By 1529, Wolsey had lost Henry's confidence and fell from power
- Henry had still not achieved his annulment
The eventual solution was to break with Rome and the pope altogether.
The creation of the Royal Supremacy
By 1534, Henry VIII had created the Royal Supremacy. This meant he denied the authority of the pope over the Church in England and claimed this right for himself. This outcome was not inevitable - it was a solution brought about through the interventions of those advising the king.
Key advisers and their motivations
Several advisers played crucial roles in the break with Rome:
- Thomas Cromwell - had sympathies with Protestant reforming ideas
- Thomas Cranmer - held reformist views and provided intellectual justification
- Anne Boleyn - had Protestant sympathies
However, Henry himself remained suspicious of Protestant views. He supported the creation of the Supremacy because:
- It allowed him to marry Anne Boleyn
- He hoped to have a legitimate male heir with Anne
- It enhanced his power in England
Intellectual justification for the break
Henry was very interested in his own powers as king, particularly as he sought to end his marriage to Catherine. He commissioned leading scholars to research an intellectual justification for his annulment.
The Collectanea satis copiosa (1530)
- Thomas Cranmer led the research and publication of this collection
- It used English chroniclers, some dating back to the Anglo-Saxon period
- The collection argued that the kings of England were not subject to papal power
- Henry himself read this work thoroughly and even annotated it
The Significance of the Collectanea
The Collectanea satis copiosa was more than just scholarly research - it was a political weapon. By drawing on historical precedents dating back to Anglo-Saxon times, it provided Henry with the intellectual ammunition he needed to justify breaking with Rome. The fact that Henry personally annotated the work shows how seriously he took these arguments.
Tours of European universities
- Scholars toured European universities looking for legal and theological arguments to support Henry's case
- These arguments were presented to parliament in 1531
The theory of "imperial" kingship
The outcome of this research was the development of the theory of "imperial" kingship. This was the idea that English kings had no superior except God. This theory had several important implications:
- The king was the ultimate source of power in the kingdom
- Any attempt to appeal to foreign powers (like the pope) was illegal
- It enabled Henry to justify his increasingly Erastian view of kingship - the idea that the ruler of the state should also control the Church
- It allowed Henry to claim supremacy over the Church
Key term: Erastian Kingship
Influenced by the ideas of the Swiss theologian Thomas Erastus, this theory argued that the ruler of the state should also control the Church.
Key legislation ending papal power
These ideas were made law through a series of Acts of Parliament:
Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533)
- Prevented Catherine from appealing to the pope about her marriage
- Based on the principle that English kings had no superior except God
This Act was crucial because it closed off Catherine's last legal avenue of appeal and made Henry's break with Rome legally binding.
Act of Supremacy (1534)
- Declared that the king was "the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England"
- The wording made it clear that parliament had not made the king the head of the Church (which would have implied parliament had the power to give and take power from the monarch)
- Instead, it claimed that the monarch had always had this power and the Act was simply confirming this
The careful wording of this Act was significant - it established that the king's supremacy was inherent, not granted by parliament, thus protecting the royal prerogative.
The process of breaking with Rome (1530-1534)
The development of the theory that supported Henry's supremacy allowed him, with the help of Cromwell and Cranmer, to attack the legal and financial powers of the pope.
Attacking the clergy's privileges
Anti-clerical criticism of the Church's privileges, such as clergy holding multiple positions at the same time, was exploited to put pressure on the English clergy and the pope.
1530: Praemunire charge
- The entire English clergy were charged with praemunire (acknowledging papal authority over the king)
- They were fined £100,000
1531: Convocation forced to submit
- Convocation (the assembly of archbishops and bishops) was forced to recognise Henry as "Supreme Head of the Church of England"
- However, they added the qualifying phrase "as far as the law of Christ allows"
Key term: Convocation
The assembly of archbishops and bishops that would meet to discuss theology and church matters. It would often meet at the same time as parliament.
1532: Supplication against the Ordinaries
- Cromwell drew up this parliamentary "petition" to Henry
- It complained about the clergy's abuses of their power
- It asked Henry to act against these abuses
- This further enhanced Henry's control over the English Church
The appointment of Cranmer and the final break
Late 1532: Cranmer becomes Archbishop of Canterbury
- On the death of William Warham, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer
- By this time, Anne Boleyn had finally given in to Henry and was pregnant
- Desperate for a legitimate male heir, Henry increased the speed of change
January 1533: Secret marriage
- Henry and Anne were married in secret
- However, the problem of Henry's first marriage to Catherine remained
April 1533: The annulment
- Cranmer led Convocation in discussions over the validity of the king's first marriage and the pope's authority
- Unsurprisingly, they supported the king
- These events allowed Cranmer to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine
- The Act in Restraint of Appeals meant she could not make a legal appeal to the pope
Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556)
Thomas Cranmer became a central figure in the English Reformation, despite his early career remaining relatively obscure.
Early career and education
- Cranmer was educated at Cambridge, where he achieved a doctorate in divinity
- He travelled in Wolsey's household to Europe
- He came up with the idea of asking European universities for their opinions on the annulment
- This led to him travelling widely in Europe on the king's behalf and to his work on the Collectanea satis copiosa
Reformist views
- During his travels, he came into contact with reformist thinkers and was influenced by their ideas
- He even got married, something a Catholic priest was not supposed to do
Appointment as Archbishop
Cranmer was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury at the end of 1532 while still abroad in northern Italy. His appointment caused considerable surprise because:
- He had only ever held minor positions in the Church
- He held reformist views different from Henry's own
Why Cranmer?
Cranmer's connection with the Boleyn family may have helped his appointment. He could be relied upon to follow orders as the Boleyns held reformist views. In May 1533, he annulled Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, fulfilling the primary purpose of his appointment.
Political survival
Cranmer's survival through the deaths of both his allies Anne Boleyn and Thomas Cromwell suggests he was a clever political operator, able to compromise and bend to the king's will.
Later contributions
- Under Edward VI, he became the architect of the Reformation
- He wrote books of homilies and two books of common prayer, the second of which remained in use for centuries
- Under Mary, Cranmer was imprisoned and tried for heresy
- He recanted his beliefs, thinking this would save him from the flames
- However, Mary was determined to get revenge because she blamed Cranmer for the annulment of her mother's marriage
- At his burning in 1556, Cranmer famously put his right hand into the flames first because it had signed his recantation
Key Points to Remember:
- Henry VIII's desire to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon was the driving force behind the break with Rome, not genuine Protestant conviction
- The Sack of Rome in 1527 and Charles V's control over Pope Clement VII made a papal annulment impossible, forcing Henry to seek an alternative solution
- The theory of "imperial" kingship provided the intellectual justification for the Royal Supremacy, arguing that English kings had no superior except God
- The break with Rome was achieved through a combination of pressure on the clergy (praemunire charges, fines), key legislation (Act in Restraint of Appeals 1533, Act of Supremacy 1534), and the appointment of loyal supporters like Cranmer
- By 1534, Henry had successfully ended papal power in England and established himself as Supreme Head of the Church of England, allowing him to annul his marriage to Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn in the hope of securing a male heir