The Red Scare (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
The Red Scare
What was the Red Scare?
Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Americans developed intense fears about the spread of communist ideas in their country. This period of anti-communist hysteria became known as the "Red Scare" - a time when suspicion and paranoia about revolutionary movements gripped American society.
The term "Red Scare" comes from the association of the colour red with communist and socialist movements. The red flag was a symbol of revolutionary politics, making "red" synonymous with radical leftist ideologies in the American mind.
The fear wasn't limited to communists alone. Many Americans also worried about anarchists - people who wanted to completely abolish government structures. This anxiety had grown since President McKinley's assassination by an anarchist in 1901, making people increasingly concerned about radical political movements.
Origins and causes
Impact of the Russian Revolution
When communists successfully took control of Russia in 1917, establishing the Soviet Union, Americans became deeply worried that similar revolutionary movements might emerge in their own country. This fear intensified when a wave of strikes hit America in 1919, with many people wrongly assuming that communists were behind the industrial unrest.
Critical Misunderstanding: Most Americans incorrectly believed that the 1919 strikes were part of a communist conspiracy. In reality, these strikes were primarily about workers demanding better wages and working conditions after World War I, not about overthrowing the government.
Targeting immigrants
Much of the blame for these perceived threats fell on immigrant communities, particularly those from Southern and Eastern Europe. The press often portrayed strikes and social problems as conspiracies orchestrated by foreign-born radicals, even though most immigrants had no connection to revolutionary politics. This created a climate where being foreign-born automatically made someone suspect in the eyes of many Americans.
The Palmer raids
Alexander Mitchell Palmer's role
In 1919, Alexander Mitchell Palmer became the United States Attorney General - the country's top law enforcement official. Palmer genuinely believed that communist agents were actively working to destroy the American government, and he was determined to stop them through aggressive action.
Palmer's fears seemed justified to him when he claimed that several bomb attacks had targeted government officials, though many of these alleged attacks never actually occurred. Despite the lack of real evidence for a communist conspiracy, Palmer pressed ahead with his plans to root out suspected radicals.
The raids of 1920
On New Year's Day 1920, Palmer ordered coordinated raids across the country targeting the homes and meeting places of suspected communists and anarchists. These raids were massive in scope, with over 6,000 people arrested and imprisoned during the operation.
The Palmer Raids Results:
Scale of the operation: Over 6,000 people arrested in coordinated raids across multiple cities
Evidence found: Only 3 guns discovered among all suspects
Outcome: The vast majority had to be released due to lack of evidence
Conclusion: The raids revealed no significant communist conspiracy, contradicting Palmer's claims
However, the results were deeply disappointing for those who believed in the communist threat. When authorities searched the arrested individuals' homes, they found only three guns among all the suspects. The vast majority of those detained had to be released because there was simply no evidence against them.
Public reaction
Surprisingly few Americans complained about the legal violations involved in these mass arrests. The fear of communism had become so intense that many people were willing to accept illegal government actions if they believed it would protect them from revolutionary threats. This showed how deeply the Red Scare had affected American attitudes towards civil liberties.
Erosion of Civil Liberties: The Palmer Raids violated basic constitutional rights including illegal searches, arrests without warrants, and denial of legal representation. The public's acceptance of these violations showed how fear could override fundamental American democratic principles.
The Sacco and Vanzetti case
Background of the case
In May 1920, two Italian immigrants named Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were arrested and charged with an armed robbery that had resulted in the deaths of two security guards. Both men were known anarchists, which immediately made them prime suspects in the eyes of law enforcement and the public.
Problems with the trial
The case against Sacco and Vanzetti was problematic from the beginning. Because they spoke limited English, the two men struggled to understand much of what happened during their trial proceedings. This language barrier made it difficult for them to defend themselves effectively.
Their anarchist beliefs became a central focus of the prosecution's case. The evidence linking them to the actual crime was weak, but the judge made it clear that he considered them guilty simply because they held radical political views and were "enemies of the government."
Judicial Bias: The trial judge openly expressed prejudice against the defendants, stating that they were "enemies of the government" based on their political beliefs rather than evidence of the crime. This violated the principle that defendants should be judged on evidence, not their political views.
Verdict and aftermath
Despite the weak evidence, both men were found guilty and sentenced to death. They spent seven years in prison while their lawyers appealed the decision, generating significant protest from people who believed the trial had been unfair.
The controversy continued even after Sacco and Vanzetti were executed by electric chair in August 1927. Many Americans organised strikes and demonstrations, arguing that the men had been convicted because of their political beliefs and immigrant status rather than solid evidence of their guilt.
Long-term significance
In December 1927, the state's own Judicial Council admitted that the trial had not been conducted fairly and proposed changes to prevent similar injustices in the future. This acknowledgement came too late to help Sacco and Vanzetti, but it highlighted serious problems with how the legal system treated immigrants and political radicals during the Red Scare period.
The Sacco and Vanzetti case became a symbol of injustice and prejudice in the American legal system. Their execution sparked international outrage and led to reforms in how defendants with limited English were treated in court proceedings.
Impact on American society
The Red Scare created deep divisions within American communities. People became suspicious of their neighbours, particularly those with foreign accents or unusual political views. Immigrant communities found themselves under constant scrutiny, with many Americans viewing them as potential threats rather than fellow citizens seeking better lives.
This period demonstrated how fear could override American values of fairness and justice. The willingness to accept illegal raids and biassed trials showed that many Americans were prepared to abandon their democratic principles when they felt threatened by foreign ideologies.
Democracy Under Threat: The Red Scare revealed a fundamental weakness in American democracy - when fear becomes widespread, citizens may willingly sacrifice the very freedoms and principles that define their society. This pattern would repeat in later periods of American history.
Timeline of key events
- 1917: Russian Revolution establishes communist government in Soviet Union
- 1919: Alexander Mitchell Palmer becomes Attorney General; wave of strikes increases anti-communist fears
- January 1, 1920: Palmer raids result in over 6,000 arrests across America
- May 1920: Sacco and Vanzetti arrested for armed robbery and murder
- 1920-1927: Sacco and Vanzetti case proceeds through courts amid growing controversy
- August 1927: Sacco and Vanzetti executed by electric chair
- December 1927: State Judicial Council admits trial was unfair
Key Points to Remember:
- The Red Scare began after the 1917 Russian Revolution when Americans feared communist influence in their country
- Attorney General Palmer conducted massive raids in 1920, arresting over 6,000 people but finding little evidence of communist activity
- The Sacco and Vanzetti case showed how prejudice against immigrants and political radicals could corrupt the justice system
- Fear of communism led many Americans to accept violations of civil liberties and legal rights
- The Red Scare particularly targeted immigrant communities, especially those from Southern and Eastern Europe