Aid (Leaving Cert Geography): Revision Notes
Aid
Aid represents assistance provided by one country or organisation to another during times of need or to support development projects. Understanding different types of aid and their effectiveness is crucial for examining global interdependence and development strategies.
Types of aid
Aid can be categorised into eight main types, each serving different purposes and addressing distinct challenges.
Understanding these eight types of aid is essential for analysing how international assistance operates and addressing different global challenges effectively.
Official aid consists of financial or material assistance provided by governments of developed countries to support the development and welfare of countries in need. This assistance can focus on both humanitarian relief and long-term development goals. Official aid typically forms part of a country's foreign aid policy and operates through government agencies.
Bilateral aid involves the direct exchange of resources between two countries. Donor countries provide aid to specific recipient countries based on mutual agreements and objectives. This type of aid fosters closer diplomatic and economic ties between the donor and recipient nations, often creating strategic partnerships.
Multilateral aid operates through international organisations such as the United Nations or the World Bank. Donor countries contribute to a common pool of resources, and these funds are then distributed to various projects and initiatives across multiple recipient countries. This approach promotes global cooperation and coordination to address worldwide challenges.
Emergency aid, also known as humanitarian aid, responds to sudden crises such as natural disasters, conflicts or pandemics. Its primary goal involves alleviating immediate suffering and providing essential resources such as food, water, medical supplies and shelter to affected populations. This type of aid focuses on saving lives and providing short-term relief.
Development aid focuses on long-term growth and improvement in developing countries. It aims to promote economic progress, enhance living standards and reduce poverty. Development aid supports various sectors including education, healthcare, infrastructure and agriculture, creating sustainable improvements over time.
Tied aid comes with conditions or requirements attached by donor countries. These conditions may require that the aid must be used to purchase goods or services from the donor country. While this type of aid can promote trade and economic benefits for the donor, it may limit the recipient's flexibility in using the assistance effectively.
Tied aid can reduce the effectiveness of assistance by limiting recipient countries' ability to use resources optimally, potentially making aid less cost-effective.
Voluntary aid comes from non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and other charitable institutions. It operates independently of government policies or diplomatic objectives, usually driven by the desire to help those in need. This grassroots approach often targets specific communities or issues.
Food aid involves providing food to countries facing food shortages or famine. It represents a crucial form of assistance during times of agricultural or climatic challenges, helping to prevent malnutrition and starvation in vulnerable populations.
Who provides aid?
More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) play a significant role in providing aid to less developed nations. These countries allocate funds to support the development and progress of Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs), aiming to improve infrastructure, healthcare, education and economic stability.
In 2022, the total net Official Development Assistance (ODA) from MEDC countries reached $161 billion. The United States, Germany and the United Kingdom emerged as the largest contributors in absolute terms.
However, when measuring aid as a percentage of Gross National Income (GNI), different patterns emerge. Luxembourg leads with 1.00% of GNI, followed by Sweden at 0.90% and Norway at 0.86%. Notably, although the United States and the United Kingdom donated the most total aid in 2022, they do not appear in the top 10 countries when aid is measured as a percentage of GNI.
The UN encourages countries to provide 0.7% of their GNI each year to developmental assistance. In reality, the average transfer falls much below this suggested figure. Very few MEDCs achieve this level of aid to LEDCs, and when economic recessions or downturns occur, the percentage of aid given to LEDCs often declines.
MEDCs also contribute significantly to less developed economies through foreign direct investment (FDI), which supports economic growth, creates job opportunities, and transfers technology and expertise.
Benefits of aid
The effectiveness of aid in providing economic and human development represents a complex and debated topic. Aid can play a crucial role in supporting the development and progress of LEDCs, though its impact varies depending on various factors.
Economic development shows positive outcomes in several cases. Aid contributes significantly to the economic growth of LEDCs by providing resources to invest in infrastructure, industries and technology. These investments create jobs, boost productivity, and stimulate economic activities that drive long-term growth.
Capacity building represents another key benefit where aid builds the capacity of LEDCs by providing technical expertise, knowledge transfer, and skill development. This empowers local communities to address their own challenges and drive sustainable development.
Worked Example: Agricultural Development in Ghana
Aid projects from Japan have supported agricultural training programmes in Ghana, enabling farmers to adopt modern techniques and increase crop yields. This demonstrates how capacity building through aid creates lasting improvements in local communities.
Healthcare outcomes improve through aid supporting healthcare systems in LEDCs, improving access to medical facilities, vaccinations, and essential medicines. Aid also addresses malnutrition and provides emergency relief during health crises.
Worked Example: Ebola Response in West Africa (2014)
Aid from the United Nations helped combat the Ebola outbreak in West Africa by providing medical supplies and healthcare training. This emergency response saved lives and prevented the crisis from spreading further.
Educational opportunities expand when aid assists LEDCs in enhancing educational opportunities and building a skilled workforce. This leads to improved literacy rates, higher employability, and the development of human capital that drives economic progress.
Disaster relief proves crucial during natural disasters and emergencies. Aid provides immediate relief, shelter, food, and medical assistance, helping LEDCs recover and build resilience to future crises.
Environmental sustainability addresses environmental challenges through aid that promotes renewable energy and protects natural resources. This contributes to global efforts to combat climate change and preserve biodiversity.
Worked Example: Geothermal Energy Development in East Africa
Iceland currently works with East African countries to develop a geothermal energy plant in the region to harness electricity and heating from volcanic activity along the rifting plate. This partnership demonstrates how aid can promote sustainable energy solutions.
Key Benefits of Aid:
- Economic development through infrastructure and technology investment
- Capacity building via knowledge transfer and skill development
- Healthcare improvements including emergency response capabilities
- Educational advancement creating skilled workforces
- Disaster relief providing immediate crisis response
- Environmental sustainability through renewable energy projects
Case study: EU humanitarian aid to Ukraine
The Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 caused significant damage to the people and economy of Ukraine. The conflict led to an unprecedented number of Ukrainians seeking asylum in the EU. Over 8.2 million Ukrainian refugees have been recorded in EU member states.
The EU responded quickly by providing aid to Ukraine through multiple approaches: economic and financial assistance, humanitarian and civil aid, military aid, and asylum for refugees.
Economic and financial assistance
Throughout 2022 and 2023, the European Union provided substantial financial assistance to Ukraine, amounting to €7.4 billion and €18 billion, respectively. This aid addressed Ukraine's immediate needs, ensuring the continuation of essential public services like schools and hospitals.
The International Monetary Fund estimated that throughout 2023 and 2024, Ukraine would require between €3 billion and €4 billion per month in foreign aid to sustain public services, wages and pensions.
In 2022, the EU provided €7.4 billion to Ukraine in several instalments during March, May, August, October, November and December. The EU committed to providing €18 billion in low-interest loans to Ukraine in 2023, matching the aid pledged by the United States.
Furthermore, in response to the Russo-Ukrainian War, the EU imposed multiple rounds of trade sanctions on Russia, targeting government officials, military forces, and various sectors of the Russian economy, including finance, energy, transport and technology. EU airspace and ports were closed to Russian aircraft and ships respectively, and export bans were enforced on specific products.
Humanitarian and civil aid
The EU played a crucial role in providing humanitarian and civil aid to Ukraine, allocating a significant amount of €630 million. This aid has been directed towards various essential services and support for the people of Ukraine.
The funds addressed urgent needs, such as providing household items, healthcare and mental health support. Winter shelters were established to ensure the safety and wellbeing of vulnerable populations, and cash assistance was provided to cover basic necessities.
In 2022, a substantial portion of the allocated funds, €485 million, was expended. The largest share of this expenditure went towards providing food and water, followed by shelter and non-food items, health services, education and school rehabilitation. Additionally, efforts were made to protect vulnerable groups and provide access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene facilities. The EU also supported coordination and assisted aid operators. As of 2023, the EU continued its commitment to supporting Ukraine, disbursing over €145 million in additional aid.
Military aid
The EU actively provided military aid or 'military assistance' to Ukraine since February 2022. A total of €3.6 billion in assistance has been allocated through the European Peace Facility (EPF) in various tranches of €500 million each. The aid has been utilised to equip and support the Ukrainian military forces.
The United States provided the most military aid to Ukraine at $46.56 billion, followed by the United Kingdom at $5.13 billion.
Other significant contributors included:
- Poland ($2.55 billion)
- Germany ($2.47 billion)
- Canada ($1.35 billion)
Specifically, in November 2022, €16 million was provided for the procurement of ammunition, military equipment, and platforms capable of delivering lethal force. The funding also covered essential services such as transportation, custody and maintenance of the equipment financed through this assistance measure. In February 2023, another tranche of €500 million was granted to further bolster Ukraine's defence capabilities.
Additionally, the EU took steps to support Ukraine through a two-year Military Assistance Mission (EUMAM). This mission aims to provide training to Ukrainian military forces within EU territories, with Germany or Poland as potential training locations. Ireland, as a participating nation in the EPF, offered its expertise in this effort. The Irish Government is considering deploying up to 30 personnel from the Defence Forces to EUMAM. These personnel would specialise in demining, combat medical activities, as well as engineering and explosive disposal.
Asylum for refugees
As of 2023, there are 8 million refugees from Ukraine across Europe, which accounts for approximately 19% of the total population. Among these refugees, 4.7 million, or 57%, have sought refuge in EU member states. The three EU countries with the highest number of Ukrainian refugees are Poland (33.7%), Germany (22.8%), and Czechia (10.6%).
To address the challenges posed by the influx of refugees, the EU activated temporary measures in March 2022. These measures grant certain rights to the refugees, including residence, access to the labour market, housing, medical assistance, social welfare assistance, and access to education for children.
The EU identified approximately €17 billion from EU cohesion and post-COVID-19 recovery funds that member states can reallocate to support the urgent needs of Ukrainian refugees. This sum includes around €7 billion of unspent cohesion policy funds from the 2014-2020 budget and approximately €10 billion from the Recovery Assistance for Cohesion and the Territories of Europe (REACT-EU) initiative.
Case study: Irish developmental aid in Ethiopia
From a developmental aid perspective, Ireland's focus centres on reducing poverty and providing aid for the poorest and most vulnerable. The Irish government prioritises providing developmental aid to countries to support gender equality, reduce humanitarian need, contribute to climate action and strengthen democratic governance.
In 2020, the Irish government produced its 'A Better World' document, which outlined a framework for providing developmental aid with the aim of reaching the UN target of allocating 0.7% of GNI to official development assistance by 2030.
In 2023, the government provided over €1.2 billion to Ireland's developmental aid programme. The programme is known as the Official Development Assistance (ODA) programme. In 2023, it represented 0.35% of Gross National Product (GNP) or 35 cents in every €100 that the country produced.
The top partner countries to receive Irish Aid support in 2023 were Ethiopia (€39.7m), Mozambique (€25.7m), Tanzania (€22.9m), Uganda (€22.7m), Malawi (€20.8m), Sierra Leone (€14.6m), Zimbabwe (€8.7m), Palestine (€8.6m) and South Sudan (€8.6m).
Irish Aid's priority areas for Official Development Assistance focus on humanitarian assistance (24%), human rights, governance and gender equality (17%), health and HIV/AIDS (14%), multi-sector (13%), agriculture (8%), education (8%), social protection (5%), basic nutrition (3%), environmental protection (2%) and water, sanitation and hygiene (1%).
Background to Ethiopia
Ethiopia has a population of over 115 million people. It represents the second most populous nation in Africa and has the fastest-growing economy in the Horn of Africa region. However, despite economic progress, it remains one of the poorest countries, with a per capita income of €770. The United Nations Human Development Index ranks Ethiopia 173 out of 189 countries.
In recent years, there has been significant economic growth and improvements in human development, leading to increased life expectancy and a decline in the proportion of people living in extreme poverty (less than €1.70 a day) from 44.2% in 1999 to approximately 23% in 2023.
Nevertheless, challenges persist, especially in rural areas, where some communities experience severe poverty. Ethiopia's population growth rate remains high at over 2% annually, adding approximately two million people each year. It is expected to reach close to 120 million by 2025.
Ethiopia faces gender-related health issues that impact child health, nutrition, productivity and overall economic growth. Additionally, the country is highly susceptible to the effects of climate change, such as variations in rainfall patterns, droughts, floods and natural disasters such as desert locust infestations.
Ethiopia represents the largest recipient of Irish developmental aid.
Irish aid in Ethiopia
Ireland has provided developmental aid to Ethiopia since 1994 when its embassy opened in the country. Irish aid in Ethiopia targets a variety of different areas of society: gender equality, humanitarian need, provision of social services, and peace and democratic governance.
Gender equality
Irish aid to Ethiopia commits to promoting gender equality and empowering women and girls. A twin-track approach is adopted, with a focus on integrating gender equality in all political, diplomatic and development engagements, while also supporting specific programmes that address barriers to women's rights.
One of the key areas of focus involves amplifying the voices of women and girls, especially those who are most marginalised, to ensure that their rights are fulfilled, and their priorities are acted upon. This work centres on three interrelated themes: Women and Leadership; Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR), including issues related to gender-based violence (GBV); and Women's Peace and Security.
Worked Example: Combating Harmful Practices in Somali and Afar Regions
In regions such as Somali and Afar, Irish Aid supports initiatives to catalyse societal and cultural change, challenging harmful practices such as female genital mutilation, and child marriage. These efforts not only aim to transform gender norms but also create climate-smart economic opportunities for all.
Furthermore, Ireland collaborates with the Ethiopian Ministry of Health to improve SRHR for women and girls. The aim involves providing equal access to respectful and high-quality health services, comprehensive sexual and reproductive health information, and prevention and response services in relation to gender-based violence. Special attention is given to maternal and child health, with a focus on training midwives, preventing HIV, mobilising communities, and providing essential drugs, vaccines, and family planning services.
Humanitarian need
Irish Aid plays a crucial role in addressing humanitarian needs in Ethiopia, particularly in response to climate- and conflict-induced shocks that lead to internal displacement and crises. Over recent years, Ireland has significantly increased its humanitarian response to support vulnerable communities.
In 2020 and 2021, Irish Aid provided essential support to the Ethiopian Humanitarian Fund, managed by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, as well as various UN agencies and international and Irish NGOs. This collective approach allows for a comprehensive and effective response to critical humanitarian issues in Ethiopia and beyond.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Ireland supported the Ethiopian Ministry of Health through contributions to UNICEF and WHO, enabling urgent humanitarian health services to be delivered in response to the emergency.
As humanitarian needs continue to grow in 2024, particularly in the regions affected by conflict and drought, Ireland remains committed to adapting its approach to ensure that essential humanitarian aid reaches those in need. The aim involves alleviating the suffering of vulnerable populations and providing them with the necessary support and resources to withstand crises and build resilience for the future.
Provision of social services
Irish Aid plays a significant role in supporting humanitarian needs in Ethiopia through various programmes aimed at delivering basic services and promoting good governance.
Worked Example: Ethiopia Social Accountability Programme
One such initiative is the Ethiopia Social Accountability Programme, which ensures accountability in delivering essential services such as health, education and HIV/AIDS services at the local level. Thanks to this programme, there have been noticeable improvements in access to water, better maternal health facilities, additional classrooms, and tuition support for children in need. Additionally, separate toilet facilities for girls have been introduced in schools across both rural and urban areas.
Furthermore, Ireland provides support to civil society and local communities to actively participate in national government programmes and advocate for good governance. The multi-donor Civil Society Support Programme, funded by Ireland, empowers civil society to contribute to national development and poverty reduction. With the help of NGOs, communities are now actively involved in identifying the needs of their areas and making proposals for improvements.
Peace and democratic governance
Irish Aid plays a vital role in supporting peace and democratic governance in Ethiopia through various targeted initiatives.
At the national and regional levels, Ireland supports locally led inclusive dialogue platforms that foster collaboration among different actors. These transformative approaches aim to build peace and strengthen democratic governance in the country. At the community level, Ireland collaborates with NGOs and church organisations to promote inter-community understanding, contributing to peaceful coexistence.
To strengthen governance institutions, Ireland focuses on improving the electoral process and human rights. By working with the African Union Peace and Security Department and the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Ireland contributes to promoting peace, security, and regional climate adaptation in Ethiopia and the broader region.
In line with Ireland's commitment to Women's Peace and Security, the Embassy has a special focus on the role of women in peace and security processes and initiatives in Ethiopia and the wider region. This ensures that women's voices and perspectives are actively integrated into peacebuilding efforts, fostering more inclusive and sustainable outcomes.
Key Points to Remember:
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Aid comes in eight main types: official, bilateral, multilateral, emergency, development, tied, voluntary and food aid - each serving different purposes and addressing distinct challenges.
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MEDCs provide $161 billion annually in ODA, with Luxembourg leading at 1.00% of GNI, though few countries meet the UN target of 0.7% of GNI for development assistance.
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Aid benefits span six key areas: economic development, capacity building, healthcare outcomes, educational opportunities, disaster relief and environmental sustainability.
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The EU's response to Ukraine demonstrates comprehensive emergency aid including €25.4 billion in financial assistance, €630 million in humanitarian aid, €3.6 billion in military aid, and support for 8 million refugees.
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Ireland's aid to Ethiopia exemplifies long-term developmental aid focusing on gender equality, humanitarian need, social services provision and democratic governance, with Ethiopia receiving €39.7 million as Ireland's largest aid recipient in 2023.