Experiences of Exclusion and Oppression in Religion (Leaving Cert Religious Education): Revision Notes
Experiences of Exclusion and Oppression in Religion
Introduction to gender exclusion in religion
Feminist theology emerged from the women's movement and has challenged traditional religious views about gender roles. As women gained political and social empowerment, religious institutions came under scrutiny for their treatment of women. Many argue that religion has historically viewed women as second-class citizens.
Understanding Key Concepts
Empowerment refers to giving people the tools to define, direct and decide their own lives.
Exclusion means preventing or restricting participation in religious life. Forces that deny empowerment are exclusive - what does not empower, excludes.
Historical context of women's oppression
Women's rights progression
The struggle for women's inclusion in society has been lengthy. Understanding this timeline helps contextualise religious exclusion within broader social patterns.
Timeline of Women's Suffrage
Key milestones in the fight for women's political rights include:
- New Zealand (1893): First country to give women the vote
- Ireland (1918): Women gained voting rights with restrictions
- Switzerland (1971) and Portugal (1976): Among the last Western countries to grant women's suffrage
The witch hunts (15th-16th centuries)
Between 1590 and 1760, approximately 40,000 people were executed as witches. The typical victim was a middle-aged woman who was reclusive, single or widowed, often working as a midwife or healer.
Women accused of witchcraft faced death if there was:
- A death in the family
- Natural disasters
- Death of livestock
Most accusations led to torture until confession, followed by execution through drowning, stoning, hanging or burning.
Importantly, civil courts, not churches, passed most death sentences. However, religious authorities provided theological justification through texts like the Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches' Hammer), which guided witch-hunting for 200 years.
Exclusion from the priesthood
Roman Catholic Church position
The RCC has consistently excluded women from ordination, citing several reasons that span centuries of church tradition.
Historical Church Councils Against Women's Ordination
- Apostolic Church Order (300 CE): No joint communion allowed
- Council of Laodicea (352 CE): Women forbidden from priesthood
- 4th Synod of Carthage (398 CE): Women cannot teach men or baptise
- Council of Orange (441 CE): Deaconesses not to be ordained
- Council of Chalcedon (451 CE): No woman under 40 to be ordained deacon
- Vincention Code (5th Century): Ordaining women went against church traditions
Modern Papal Reaffirmations
The exclusion has been repeatedly reinforced in modern times:
- Pope Paul VI (1976): Stated fundamental reasons against women's ordination based on church tradition, not the Bible
- Code of Canon Law (1983): Only men could receive ordination
- Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992): Backed up the 1983 position
- Pope John Paul II (1988): Argued that Jesus did not call women as disciples/apostles
- Pope John Paul II (1994): Repeated that exclusion "is in accordance with God's plan"
- Pope Francis (2019): Generally referred back to John Paul II's writings when asked about women's ordination
Protestant church developments
Many Protestant denominations have taken different approaches, demonstrating that women's ordination is possible within Christian theology.
The progression towards inclusion shows positive change in many denominations:
- Methodist Church (1956): Ordained first woman to full-time ministry
- Anglican Church (1971): Church of England/Ireland began ordaining women
- Barbara Harris (1989): First Anglican female bishop
- Ireland (1990): First Irish woman ordained in Anglican Church
By 1994, 32 women were ordained in a single Anglican service, demonstrating significant inclusion.
Cultural vs religious factors
The exclusion of women from priesthood appears to be a cultural development rather than a core religious principle. Early Christian communities had more prominent roles for women, but during the 4th and 5th centuries, the church gradually restricted women's access to positions of power.
A Question of Interpretation
Some argue that if the RCC had ordained female priests and treated exclusion as cultural rather than theological, the church might not be experiencing its current decline in the Western world. This raises important questions about whether traditional interpretations serve the church's mission effectively.
Magdalene sisters
The Magdalene laundries represent another example of gender-based exclusion that demonstrates the double standards applied to men and women in religious contexts.
Double Standards in Moral Judgment
Women were removed from Irish society after engaging in sexual activities, while the men involved faced no consequences. This demonstrates how religious institutions could enforce different moral standards based on gender, punishing women while absolving men of the same behaviour.
Impact of exclusion
On women
Religious exclusion has created significant barriers and inequalities that extend beyond spiritual life into broader society.
The exclusion has:
- Denied women equal participation in spiritual leadership
- Reinforced societal gender inequalities
- Limited women's access to religious authority and decision-making
On religious institutions
The exclusion has also damaged the institutions themselves, undermining their core message and effectiveness.
The consequences include:
- Damaged the church's message of Jesus's love and inclusion
- Contributed to declining membership, particularly in Ireland
- Created an institution with "only half of what God wants and only half of what the world needs"
Theological Implications
Christian belief holds that men and women together reflect God's character and essence. Excluding women means religious institutions operate with an incomplete representation of the divine, potentially limiting their spiritual effectiveness and authenticity.
Summary
Key Points to Remember:
- Empowerment means giving people tools to define, direct and decide their own lives - exclusion prevents this
- Historical witch hunts targeted mainly middle-aged women, showing how gender stereotypes were used to justify persecution
- The RCC has consistently excluded women from priesthood through church councils and papal declarations, while many Protestant churches have embraced women's ordination
- Exclusion appears to be based on cultural traditions rather than core religious teachings, as early Christian communities had more prominent female roles
- Religious exclusion of women has damaged both women's spiritual opportunities and the churches' own message of inclusion and love