The Main Schools of Buddhism Revision Notes for HSC SSCE Studies of Religion

The Main Schools of Buddhism

Overview of Buddhist schools

Buddhism has evolved into three major schools or variants since the Buddha's death. These schools developed in different geographical regions and have distinct characteristics, though all share core Buddhist principles.

The three main schools are:

Theravada Buddhism - primarily found in Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Cambodia and Laos
Mahayana Buddhism - dominant in Vietnam, China, Korea and Japan
Vajrayana Buddhism - a specialised form of Mahayana Buddhism centred in Tibet

In recent centuries, all three schools have spread beyond their traditional Asian heartlands to Europe, the Americas and Australia. Today, approximately 100 million people practise Theravada Buddhism, while Mahayana Buddhism claims up to one billion followers worldwide, making it by far the largest Buddhist tradition.

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The geographical spread of Buddhism began in India (where the Buddha lived in the 6th-5th centuries BCE) and gradually moved outward. Buddhism arrived in Sri Lanka around the third century CE, reached China by the first century CE, Korea by the fourth century CE, and Japan by the sixth century CE. Tibet saw Buddhism take hold in the seventh century CE. Interestingly, Buddhism declined in its Indian homeland from the seventh century CE and had virtually disappeared by around 1200 CE.

Theravada Buddhism

Core characteristics

Theravada Buddhism, which translates literally as "way of the elders", is considered the orthodox or traditional school of Buddhism. Theravada Buddhists maintain that their teachings and monastic practices represent the oldest and most authentic form of Buddhism, staying closest to what the Buddha originally taught.

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Key term: Theravada - from Pali language meaning "teaching of the elders"; refers to the school claiming to preserve the Buddha's original teachings most faithfully.

The Theravada tradition emphasises that achieving nirvana (liberation from the cycle of rebirth and the realm of desire) requires total dedication to the Buddha's message. Practitioners believe this goal is reached through personal experience, careful analysis, disciplined thought and sustained meditation (the practice of training and regulating the mind).

The arhat ideal

Central to Theravada Buddhism is the concept of the arhat (Sanskrit) or arhant (Pali). An arhat is an individual who has completely eliminated their desire for rebirth and has thus achieved enlightenment. This represents someone who has reached the final goal of Buddhist practice and attained nirvana - becoming an enlightened and saintly person.

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Historically, most Theravada Buddhists today require guidance from wise members of the Sangha (monastic community) to progress toward enlightenment, though some exceptional individuals, like the Buddha himself, can achieve enlightenment independently.

Monastic emphasis and gender issues

Theravada Buddhism places strong emphasis on monastic life. This focus has had significant implications that shape the tradition's character and accessibility.

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Gender Imbalance in Theravada Practice:

The tradition generally accepts that only male monks can reach enlightenment, which has led to:

Many nunneries in Theravada countries closing down over time
Women's roles in achieving spiritual liberation remaining limited
Ongoing debates about gender equality in Buddhist practice

This gender imbalance stems partly from ambiguous statements attributed to the Buddha in scripture. Some passages encourage the establishment of nunneries and female spiritual practice, while others suggest that accepting women into the Sangha would harm Buddhism's future. Modern Western Buddhist scholars have proposed that these negative passages may have been added later by men uncomfortable with women becoming arhats.

Theological approach

Theravada Buddhism generally rejects supernatural elements such as gods, spirits and mystical forces that appear in Mahayana Buddhism. This makes it often characterised as an atheistic form of Buddhism, focused purely on the Buddha's rational teachings about suffering, impermanence and the path to liberation.

Critics from the Mahayana tradition sometimes call Theravada Buddhism Hinayana, meaning "small vehicle", suggesting it is limited because it restricts the profound experiences of enlightenment primarily to monks rather than making them accessible to all people.

Mahayana Buddhism

Origins and development

Mahayana Buddhism began as a breakaway movement within the early Buddhist community in India, centuries after the Buddha's death. The word Mahayana translates literally as "great vehicle", contrasting with the "small vehicle" label applied to Theravada.

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Key term: Mahayana - literally "great vehicle"; refers to Buddhist schools that emphasise helping all beings achieve enlightenment, not just individual practitioners.

This movement introduced significant changes including modified monastic rules, adapted and expanded sacred texts, and rejection of certain decisions made at the first Buddhist council.

Mahayana Buddhism subsequently developed into several distinct schools. The two main philosophical schools are:

Madhyamika - maintains a middle way between asserting that things exist or don't exist, resolving an early Buddhist philosophical controversy
Yogacara - focuses on consciousness and meditation practices

The Bodhisattva path

What fundamentally distinguishes Mahayana from Theravada is the Bodhisattva ideal. A Bodhisattva is someone who has achieved complete enlightenment but chooses not to enter final nirvana. Instead, they take an oath to either remain in spiritual form to guide others, reincarnate repeatedly in physical form, or postpone their own final liberation.

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Key term: Bodhisattva - an enlightened being who delays entering nirvana in order to help all other beings achieve enlightenment; embodies compassion and selfless service.

This represents a major shift from Theravada's focus on individual liberation (the arhat path). The Bodhisattva delays their own ultimate peace for the sake of every other sentient being, making this a path of universal compassion rather than personal achievement.

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The Bodhisattva's Choice: Understanding Universal Compassion

Consider the difference between these two paths:

Arhat path (Theravada):

Individual achieves enlightenment
Enters final nirvana immediately
Personal liberation is complete

Bodhisattva path (Mahayana):

Individual achieves enlightenment
Chooses to delay entering nirvana
Remains to guide others toward enlightenment
Liberation becomes a gift to all beings

This shift transforms enlightenment from a personal goal into a selfless act of service.

Early Mahayana thinkers questioned how individual enlightenment could truly help humanity. The Bodhisattva ideal resolved this by creating enlightened beings dedicated to guiding others. Mahayana Buddhism follows a 10-stage path of the Bodhisattva, each stage representing deeper levels of wisdom and compassion.

Geographical spread

From India, Mahayana Buddhism spread to multiple regions, adapting to local cultures while maintaining core principles:

Tibet - where it developed into Vajrayana
Vietnam - where it remains the dominant form
China - where it adapted to local culture from around the first century CE
Korea - passed from China
Japan - transmitted from Korea around the sixth century CE

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The success of Mahayana in China was partly because its Madhyamika philosophical thinking shared common ground with Taoism (Daoism), an established Chinese religion. By the Sui Dynasty (from approximately 580 CE), Buddhism had been adopted as a major court religion in China.

Theological and philosophical features

Mahayana Buddhism presents the Buddha not merely as a human teacher but as an all-knowing, transcendent being with cosmic significance. This represents a major theological development from Theravada's view of the Buddha as an enlightened human.

Key philosophical developments in Mahayana include:

Emptiness doctrine (Sunyata): Mahayanists developed the teaching that most phenomena on Earth are empty of inherent substance. This doctrine (body of teachings forming the basis of a belief system) suggests that what appears real is actually illusory, as the Buddha taught.

Spiritual beings: Unlike Theravada's atheistic approach, Mahayana Buddhism accepts that various spiritual beings or deities can assist followers in their search for enlightenment. This makes it a more theistic form of Buddhism.

Sudden enlightenment: Many Mahayana schools teach that nirvana can be achieved easily and sometimes suddenly, rather than requiring lifelong monastic dedication. Enlightenment becomes available to everyone: monks, nuns, laypeople, farmers and rulers alike.

Inclusivity

Mahayana Buddhism is notably more inclusive than Theravada, which has contributed significantly to its widespread adoption:

Most Mahayana schools agree that women can achieve enlightenment as easily as men
Enlightenment is accessible outside monasteries, in ordinary life
Some schools suggest enlightenment can occur suddenly, without years of preparation
The tradition adapts more flexibly to local cultural influences

This flexibility and inclusivity helps explain why Mahayana became far more popular than Theravada, spreading successfully across diverse East Asian cultures and becoming the largest Buddhist tradition globally.

Criticisms from Theravada

Theravada Buddhists argue that much of Mahayana practice extends beyond what the Buddha actually taught. Their specific concerns reflect fundamental differences in interpreting Buddhist authenticity.

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Theravada Concerns About Mahayana Practice:

The concept of Bodhisattvas - no clear precedent in early Buddhism
The idea of sudden enlightenment - contradicts the Buddha's teaching of gradual progress
The worship of spiritual beings - contradicts the Buddha's rational, non-theistic approach
Adaptation to local cultures - may compromise core teachings

These criticisms highlight the tension between preserving original teachings and adapting Buddhism to new contexts.

Vajrayana Buddhism

Origins and meaning

Vajrayana, which translates literally as "thunderbolt" Buddhism, developed mainly in Tibet as a variant within Mahayana Buddhism. The word vajra also refers to a bright, indestructible substance (like diamond), so Vajrayana came to be known as "diamond Buddhism". These metaphors reflect the tradition's goal: cutting through the illusions people construct about themselves, their status and desires, to access the real core of existence.

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Key term: Vajrayana - literally "thunderbolt" or "diamond vehicle"; refers to Tibetan Buddhist traditions emphasising mystical practices and rapid transformation.

Core concept: Prajna

A key element of Vajrayana Buddhism is prajna (Sanskrit word meaning wisdom), which is also significant in Mahayana Buddhism generally. This special kind of wisdom involves developing the ability to discriminate clearly between reality and illusion. Prajna encompasses both compassion for all beings and recognition that the world is ultimately illusory.

This wisdom allows practitioners to see through surface appearances and understand the true nature of existence.

Mystical and syncretic character

Vajrayana Buddhism is the most spiritualised and mystical of the three major Buddhist schools. It incorporates elements from multiple religious traditions, creating a unique syncretic approach.

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Vajrayana's Religious Synthesis:

Vajrayana incorporates elements from:

Hinduism - various practices and concepts
Animism - belief in spirits inhabiting natural objects
Occultism - hidden spiritual knowledge and practices
Magic - ritual practices to influence spiritual forces
Bon religion - the indigenous pre-Buddhist religion of Tibet

This syncretic (blending) character makes Vajrayana distinct from both Theravada and mainstream Mahayana. The tradition emphasises direct spiritual experience over abstract philosophical emptiness.

Sacred texts and practices

The Tibetan Book of the Dead is a key Vajrayana text that serves as a manual for both the soul of the deceased (guiding them through the intermediate state between death and rebirth) and mourners and spiritual practitioners (helping them assist the deceased).

This text exemplifies Vajrayana's mystical approach, providing detailed descriptions of visions, spiritual beings and states of consciousness encountered after death.

The Dalai Lama

Vajrayana Buddhism has gained global recognition largely through the 14th Dalai Lama, who has lived in exile since fleeing Tibet in 1959. As a well-travelled Buddhist spokesperson, he has introduced Vajrayana teachings to worldwide audiences.

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The Dalai Lama holds special significance in Vajrayana tradition as he is considered a reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. This belief that highly realised spiritual teachers deliberately reincarnate to continue helping beings is characteristic of Vajrayana's mystical worldview.

Comparing the three schools

The three schools of Buddhism share fundamental principles but differ significantly in their approaches to practice, enlightenment, and the role of monasticism. Understanding these differences helps clarify how Buddhism adapted to diverse cultural contexts.

Feature	Theravada	Mahayana	Vajrayana
Meaning	"Way of the elders"	"Great vehicle"	"Thunderbolt/Diamond vehicle"
Geographic base	Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos	Vietnam, China, Korea, Japan	Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan
Followers	~100 million	~1 billion	Part of Mahayana count
Spiritual ideal	Arhat (individual enlightenment)	Bodhisattva (enlightenment to help others)	Bodhisattva with mystical practices
Monasticism	Heavily emphasised, especially for males	Important but enlightenment possible for laypeople	Important but includes tantric practices
Women's access	Generally restricted	Generally equal access	Generally equal access
View of Buddha	Enlightened human teacher	Transcendent, cosmic being	Transcendent being, multiple Buddha-forms
Supernatural elements	Generally rejected (atheistic)	Accepted (spiritual beings, deities)	Strongly emphasised (mystical, magical)
Path to enlightenment	Gradual, requiring monastic discipline	Can be sudden, available to all	Rapid transformation through special practices
Character	Conservative, orthodox	Flexible, inclusive	Mystical, syncretic

Exam guidance

When answering questions about Buddhist schools, structure your responses carefully and demonstrate understanding of the complex relationships between the traditions.

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Exam Question Approaches:

For "explain" questions: Provide clear definitions and examples of key differences between schools. Focus on the arhat versus Bodhisattva distinction and the implications for practice.

For "analyse" questions: Examine why these schools developed differently. Consider factors like:

Geographical spread and cultural adaptation
Different interpretations of what the Buddha taught
Varying emphasis on monasticism versus lay practice
Debates about accessibility of enlightenment

For "evaluate" questions: Assess claims such as "Theravada is more authentic" or "Mahayana is more compassionate". Consider:

What evidence exists for Theravada's claim to preserve original teachings?
Does the Bodhisattva ideal represent genuine development or deviation from Buddhism?
How have cultural factors shaped each school's character?
What are the strengths and limitations of each approach?

Common exam mistakes to avoid:

Oversimplifying - Don't reduce schools to simple labels like "strict" or "liberal"
Confusing terms - Keep clear distinctions between arhat and Bodhisattva
Ignoring geography - Remember how cultural contexts shaped each school
Making value judgements - Present different views fairly without assuming one school is "better"

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Key Points to Remember:

Three main schools: Buddhism divided into Theravada (Southeast Asia), Mahayana (East Asia) and Vajrayana (Tibet), with all three now spread globally
Population: Approximately 100 million Theravada Buddhists versus up to one billion Mahayana Buddhists (including Vajrayana)
Central distinction: Theravada follows the arhat path (individual enlightenment), while Mahayana follows the Bodhisattva path (enlightenment to help all beings)
Theravada characteristics: Claims to be most orthodox and traditional, emphasises monastic life, generally restricts full enlightenment to male monks, rejects supernatural elements
Mahayana characteristics: More flexible and inclusive, developed Bodhisattva ideal, accepts spiritual beings, teaches enlightenment is available to all regardless of gender or monastic status, adapted successfully to various Asian cultures
Vajrayana characteristics: Tibetan variant of Mahayana, highly mystical and syncretic, incorporates elements from Hinduism, Bon and other traditions, emphasises rapid transformation through special practices, represented globally by the Dalai Lama

The Main Schools of Buddhism (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes