Discourse (AQA A-Level English Language): Revision Notes
Discourse
Discourse is a key area of language study that focuses on how language works beyond the level of individual sentences. Understanding discourse helps you analyse both how texts are structured and how language creates meaning in social contexts.
What is discourse?
Discourse can be understood in two main ways:
Definition 1: Textual cohesion
Discourse refers to extended pieces of text or conversation, with particular focus on how different parts connect together. This connection, called cohesion, happens through grammatical structures (like pronouns referring back to earlier nouns) or through vocabulary choices (like using synonyms or related words throughout a text).
Definition 2: Identity and representation
Discourse also describes how texts construct particular images or representations of individuals, groups or institutions. For example, the discourse of law uses specific vocabulary and structures that create a sense of authority and formality. Similarly, political discourse or media discourse each have distinctive features that reflect and shape their institutional identities.
Key features of discourse analysis
When analysing discourse, you should consider multiple elements that work together to create meaning. Each feature contributes to how a text functions and what effects it produces.
Written genre
The type of written text significantly influences its discourse features. A newspaper article uses different conventions from a personal diary entry, which differs from an academic essay. Genre shapes vocabulary choices, sentence structures, level of formality and overall organisation.
Recognising the genre helps you understand why certain language choices have been made and what expectations readers might have. Always identify the genre first before analysing other discourse features.
Context of conversation
In spoken discourse, the situation in which the conversation occurs greatly affects the language used. An unequal encounter, such as a job interview or doctor's appointment, creates different power dynamics from a peer group chat among friends. Context determines formality levels, who speaks most, and what topics are appropriate.
Understanding context is essential for explaining why speakers make particular linguistic choices.
Speakers' roles
The relationship between speakers and their respective positions influence turn-taking, interruptions and topic control. A teacher-student conversation differs from a conversation between colleagues. Roles can be fixed (like parent-child) or negotiated (like between friends deciding who leads a discussion).
Analysing who controls the conversation and how reveals power relationships and social dynamics. Pay attention to patterns of dominance and submission in conversational exchanges.
Point of view, perspective and voice
In written texts, the narrator's perspective shapes how events and characters are presented. First-person narration creates intimacy and personal connection, whilst third-person narration can offer broader perspectives. The voice chosen (authoritative, informal, ironic) influences how readers interpret the content.
Consider whose voice is heard and whose might be marginalised or absent. Missing voices can be just as significant as those that are present in the text.
Management of turn-taking and topics
In conversation, speakers must negotiate when to speak and what to discuss. Turn-taking can be smooth and cooperative or competitive with frequent interruptions. Topic management involves introducing new subjects, developing existing ones and closing discussions.
Openings (greetings, establishing purpose) and closings (farewells, summarising) frame conversations and signal transitions. Skilled speakers manage these elements to achieve their communicative goals.
Register
Register encompasses the level of formality, the topic being discussed and the overall tone of the communication. Speakers and writers adjust their register based on audience and purpose.
A formal register might use Standard English, complex sentence structures and technical vocabulary, whilst an informal register allows colloquialisms, contractions and simpler constructions.
Register switching occurs when speakers deliberately change their language style during an interaction, perhaps moving from formal to informal to create rapport.
External coherence
Texts achieve coherence when they make consistent reference to the real world, creating a believable and internally consistent picture. This goes beyond surface-level cohesion to include logical connections between ideas and maintenance of a consistent perspective.
External coherence helps readers or listeners understand how the text relates to their knowledge and experience of the world.
Intertextuality
Intertextuality occurs when texts reference, quote or echo other texts. This might be explicit (direct quotations) or implicit (allusions, similar structures).
Recognising intertextual references enriches understanding because it shows how texts exist within broader cultural conversations. Media texts frequently use intertextuality to create humour, make social commentary or establish credibility.
Conversational frameworks and structures
Speakers use established frameworks or scripts to guide interactions. These are shared expectations about how certain conversations should proceed.
Key structural elements:
- Discourse markers (words like 'well', 'so', 'anyway') signal topic shifts, turn-taking and the speaker's attitude
- Adjacency pairs are two-part exchanges where the first part requires a specific type of response (question-answer, greeting-greeting)
- Interruptions occur when one speaker breaks into another's turn
- Overlaps happen when speakers talk simultaneously, often at transition points
These features reveal how conversations are cooperatively constructed. Don't just identify them - explain what they tell you about the relationship between speakers and the purpose of the interaction.
Exam tips
Practice analytical annotation
Take any text and systematically identify both types of discourse at work. Mark where cohesive devices connect ideas, and note how the text constructs particular identities or represents groups. This dual approach strengthens your analytical skills.
Build a feature checklist
When analysing discourse, work through key features methodically. Don't just list them - explain their effects and significance. Consider which features are most prominent and why they suit the text's purpose and context.
Link to context
Always connect discourse features to the social context. Explain why certain choices make sense given the genre, audience, purpose and relationship between participants.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Discourse analysis examines language beyond individual sentences, focusing on how texts create cohesion and construct identities
- Cohesion connects different parts of a text through grammar (pronouns, conjunctions) and vocabulary (word fields, synonyms)
- Context determines language choices - consider genre, situation, speaker roles and power relationships
- Key structural elements include turn-taking, discourse markers, adjacency pairs and topic management
- Register and register switching reveal how speakers adapt their language to different audiences and purposes
- Look for intertextuality and external coherence to understand how texts relate to other texts and the real world