Party and Committee System (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes

Party and Committee System

The party and committee systems are two fundamental organisational structures within the US Congress. They shape how legislation is developed, how power is distributed, and how effectively Congress can perform its constitutional functions of legislation and oversight.

Party system in Congress

Congressional caucuses

A congressional caucus is a grouping of members of Congress who collaborate to pursue shared legislative objectives. While most members belong to multiple caucuses based on various interests, every member (except independents who choose otherwise) belongs to one of the four main party caucuses.

The four main party caucuses are:

• House Republican caucus (also called the House Republican Conference) – all Republicans in the House of Representatives
• Senate Republican caucus (also called the Senate Republican Conference) – all Republicans in the Senate
• House Democrat caucus – all Democrats in the House of Representatives
• Senate Democrat caucus – all Democrats in the Senate

Beyond these major party groupings, smaller caucuses function as subgroups united by particular interests, often ideological. For instance, the House Freedom Caucus consists of approximately 45 conservative Republicans committed to limited government principles, whilst the Congressional Progressive Caucus comprises nearly 100 progressive Democrats who advocate for government intervention to improve society.

Progressive politics emphasises using government action to enhance society and improve the lives of ordinary citizens. This approach is particularly associated with the liberal wing of the Democratic Party.

Some caucuses operate on a bipartisan basis, including members from both parties. Examples include the Bipartisan Heroin and Opioid Task Force and the Climate Solutions Caucuses in both chambers. The Congressional Black Caucus is technically bipartisan, though only four Republicans have ever joined it.

Party leadership structure

Each party caucus in both chambers elects a leader. This leader is designated:

• The majority leader if their party controls that chamber
• The minority leader if their party is in the minority

These majority and minority leaders serve as floor leaders, responsible for planning the legislative agenda and coordinating their party members during votes and debates. Their primary objective is achieving party unity to advance legislative goals.

The speaker of the House of Representatives holds the most prominent leadership position in Congress. Elected by all House members, the speaker always belongs to the majority party. The speaker's responsibilities include presiding over debates, maintaining order during House sessions, and serving as the majority party's leader. The speaker determines the House's legislative agenda and appoints members to conference and select committees, granting considerable power. The Constitution places the speaker second only to the vice president in presidential succession.

When the speaker belongs to a different party than the president, they become the primary voice of opposition to the executive. The speaker receives support from the House majority leader, who ranks second in the party hierarchy and implements the speaker's agenda by scheduling legislation for House consideration. Additional support comes from the assistant speaker, the party whip, and the chair of the party caucus.

Party discipline

Party discipline in Congress has traditionally been weak compared to other democratic legislatures. Party whips in each chamber work to organise members to vote according to leadership directives. However, their power to enforce unity is limited. The separation of powers prevents party leaders from offering government positions to Congress members in exchange for support – a key difference from parliamentary systems.

In the House, the speaker possesses some mechanisms to influence members. The speaker decides who sits on the House Rules Committee and who chairs and sits on select and conference committees. In the Senate, party leaders determine committee assignments, which can encourage senators to follow party directions.

Party leaders often must rely on persuasion to convince members to support the party's agenda, particularly challenging given the broad range of opinion within each party. In 2018-19, Democrats maintained unity through shared opposition to Trump's border wall proposal during the longest government shutdown in American history.

The final enforcement mechanism involves threatening to withdraw party support, either during a member's next election campaign or in their advancement up the party hierarchy. The 2018 midterm elections marked a turning point in Trump's control of the Republican Party. Many of his critics resigned from Congress and were replaced by more supportive members. Republicans lost House control but generally won seats where Trump campaigned personally. During Trump's 2019 impeachment trial, only one Republican senator, Mitt Romney, voted against him.

Despite party discipline being characterised as weak, Congress has become more partisan and polarised over recent decades, with members increasingly likely to vote along party lines.

Partisanship and polarisation

Partisanship refers to a focus on one's political party's interests. When extreme, partisanship can damage democracy by preventing bipartisanship – the process of two parties working together to reach compromise.

During the 1980s, many members of Congress were politically centrist, with considerable ideological overlap between moderate Republicans and Democrats. This overlap enabled collaboration on legislation. Even during divided government (when different parties control the presidency and one or both chambers of Congress), presidents with centrist proposals could often find sufficient bipartisan votes.

One factor driving this polarisation is the reduced number of competitive electoral districts – districts where either party has a realistic chance of winning. In 1997, there were 164 competitive congressional districts; by 2020, only 91 remained. This reduction means most districts are safely Republican or Democrat, encouraging representatives to appeal to their party base rather than the centre ground.

Increased polarisation amplifies partisanship, as the two parties become ideologically opposed in ways that seem irreconcilable. Bipartisanship becomes more difficult, increasing the likelihood of gridlock during divided government. Party unity votes – where the majority of voting Republicans oppose the majority of voting Democrats – have increased significantly since 2000, another consequence of heightened partisanship.

Efforts to restore bipartisanship

Some initiatives have sought to increase bipartisan cooperation. The Problem Solvers Caucus, established in 2017, promotes bipartisan collaboration on legislation with approximately 50 members from both parties. Whilst this represents a small proportion of Congress, party leaders have shown willingness to compromise on key initiatives. The First Step Act 2018, which reformed the criminal justice system, demonstrated successful bipartisan cooperation.

Committee system in Congress

The committee system comprises several different committee types that help Congress fulfil its functions. These include standing committees, select committees, the House Rules Committee, and conference committees.

Standing committees

Standing committees are permanent committees, each focusing on a specific policy area such as foreign affairs or agriculture. There are 20 standing committees in the House and 16 in the Senate. Much of their detailed work occurs within subcommittees. Parties are represented on committees in the same proportions as in the full chamber, so the majority party controls all standing committees.

Standing committees are responsible for:

• Holding hearings during the committee stage of bills to question witnesses and vote on whether bills should proceed to the full House or Senate
• Conducting investigations and oversight of the executive branch within their policy area

Senate standing committees have an additional crucial responsibility: considering presidential appointments. The process involves:

• Holding hearings to examine the nominee's suitability
• Voting on whether to recommend confirmation to the full Senate

Standing committees enable Congress to manage the vast range of issues requiring legislation and investigation. Long-serving committee members develop expertise in their policy areas, positioning them ideally to scrutinise relevant legislation. This specialist knowledge allows more effective oversight than the chambers as a whole, giving committee findings greater authority. Hearings often attract significant media attention, providing an important check on executive power. Consequently, committee chairs hold desirable and influential positions within Congress.

Select committees

Select committees are established to address specific urgent issues, preventing relevant standing committees from becoming overloaded. Most are temporary, though a few – such as the House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence and the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence – are permanent.

Select committees generally focus on investigation rather than legislation. From 2017 to 2020, the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence investigated Russian interference in the 2016 presidential elections. Select committees conduct high-profile, detailed hearings serving the public interest. The possibility of congressional investigation creates a powerful incentive for the executive to ensure its actions withstand scrutiny.

House Rules Committee

The House Rules Committee is a standing committee with unique importance. It establishes the 'rules' for bills, determining how much time they receive on the House floor and whether amendments are permitted. Open rules allow members to propose amendments to bills, whilst closed rules prohibit amendments.

The committee has a small membership of 13, weighted toward the majority party in a 2:1 ratio. The speaker uses this majority control to determine what the House debates. The committee decides which legislation is discussed, when, for how long, and in what manner. The House can force debate on a bill if an absolute majority of members sign a discharge petition, but this is difficult to achieve. Generally, the committee's decisions prevail.

The chair of the House Rules Committee holds one of Congress's most powerful positions. Pete Sessions, who chaired the committee from 2013 to 2019, received millions of dollars in campaign donations from pressure groups and corporate donors due to his influence. Sessions reportedly used his position to advance his personal opposition to marijuana, preventing amendments that would have relaxed federal laws against marijuana in states where it is legal.

Conference committees

Conference committees are temporary committees established to consider specific bills when the House and Senate have passed different versions of the same legislation. Members from the relevant standing committees in each chamber sit together to consider both versions and merge them into a combined bill called a conference report. This final version returns to both chambers for approval votes. Either or both chambers can reject the final bill if dissatisfied.

Representative role of senators and representatives

One key role of Congress members is representing their constituents through:

• Communicating with constituents
• Passing legislation
• Committee membership
• Lobbying the executive
• Constituency casework

These activities ensure that the voices and interests of ordinary citizens are heard in the federal legislative process.