The US Electoral System (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes

The US Electoral System

Types of elections in the USA

The United States conducts four main types of elections, each serving a different purpose in the democratic process.

Presidential elections use an indirect system called the Electoral College to choose the president every four years. Rather than directly electing the president through a national popular vote, voters in each state select electors who then formally elect the president.

Congressional elections directly elect members of both chambers of Congress. The entire House of Representatives and one-third of the Senate face election every two years. Elections held between presidential elections are known as midterms.

Primaries are formal secret ballot elections used to select party candidates. These are most important for choosing presidential candidates, but they also determine candidates for congressional and state elections. Some states still use caucuses, though these are increasingly rare.

Direct democracy includes various methods of citizen participation such as ballot initiatives, referendums and recall elections at state level.

Electoral timings

The Constitution establishes clear timings for major federal elections, demonstrating the rigidity of the US constitutional system.

Presidential elections occur every four years in November, with the formal inauguration taking place the following January. If a president dies or resigns during their term (as Richard Nixon did in 1974), the vice president assumes the presidency and completes the remainder of the term without triggering a new election.

Congressional elections take place every two years. The entire House of Representatives (435 members) and approximately one-third of the Senate (around 33-34 senators) face election at this time. Those elections occurring between presidential contests are called midterms.

Individual states determine the timing of other elections, including state, local and primary elections. This means voters in many states cast ballots once or twice annually. For example, Wisconsin held primary and local elections in April 2020 (controversially during the COVID-19 pandemic), then voted again in November 2020 for the presidential election and congressional seats.

The federal structure and state control

Many aspects of electoral administration operate at state level rather than being controlled by the federal government. This reflects the federal nature of American government and provides an important example of state sovereignty.

Federal rules establish broad frameworks, such as:

• Requirements that polling stations be accessible to people with disabilities
• Prohibition of racial or gender-based voting discrimination
• Constitutional provisions for election timings

Beyond these basics, states possess considerable autonomy in electoral matters.

Voter registration requirements vary significantly between states. North Dakota, for example, has no formal voter registration system at all, though voters must produce identification when voting. Other states have much stricter registration requirements.

Ballot access laws also differ across states, affecting which candidates appear on ballot papers. Tight regulations in some states meant that in 2020, Green Party candidate Howie Hawkins did not appear on the ballot in 21 states. In 17 of these he was a write-in candidate (voters could manually write his name on the ballot), whilst in four states there was no opportunity to vote Green at all.

States also control how primaries are organised. Although parties have input in determining procedures for awarding delegates to the national nominating convention (the occasion when the successful candidate is formally endorsed as their party's presidential candidate), state authorities actually conduct the elections.

The majoritarian electoral system

Nearly all US elections employ a majoritarian electoral system where the candidate receiving the most votes wins. This is the standard "first-past-the-post" or "winner-takes-all" approach used for most congressional elections.

However, important exceptions exist because electoral systems are determined at state level with no federal requirements (except for the Electoral College).

The Electoral College system

Presidential elections use an indirect method through the Electoral College rather than a direct national popular vote. This system reflects the federal structure of the United States and is unique to presidential elections.

Each state (plus Washington DC) receives an allocation of Electoral College votes (ECVs) equivalent to the size of their congressional delegation.

The allocation of Electoral College votes undergoes recalculation every ten years following the national census through a process called reapportionment. States experiencing above-average population growth gain both ECVs and House districts, whilst those with declining populations lose them. After the 2010 census, Texas gained four ECVs for the 2012 election, whilst Ohio and New York each lost two.

The debate over whether the Electoral College serves American democracy effectively continues to generate significant controversy.

Evaluation of the US electoral system

The US electoral system demonstrates both considerable strengths and significant weaknesses.

Strengths

The frequency and number of elections provides extensive opportunities for political participation. Citizens regularly vote for positions at federal, state and local levels, ensuring democratic accountability across multiple layers of government.

The majoritarian system typically delivers clear results and single-party control of legislative chambers. This can facilitate effective governance and makes accountability easier as voters know which party is responsible for legislative outcomes.

Federal structure is reinforced by allowing individual states significant discretion over electoral administration. This respects state sovereignty whilst operating within a broad national framework to prevent discrimination.

Primaries and caucuses enable ordinary voters to play the decisive role in selecting party candidates rather than leaving this to party elites. This democratises the candidate selection process.

The Electoral College reinforces federalism and ensures smaller states receive attention during presidential campaigns rather than being ignored in favour of large population centres.

Weaknesses

Voter fatigue is a significant concern. The sheer number of elections can generate apathy and cynicism about the political process, potentially reducing participation and engagement.

The two-party system is heavily favoured by the majoritarian electoral system, leaving minimal scope for third parties or genuine independents to succeed. This limits voter choice and can make the system unrepresentative of diverse political views.

Divided government often results when the two major parties each control one chamber of Congress or different branches of government, potentially creating deadlock and making effective governance difficult.

Electoral manipulation remains possible at state level through practices like gerrymandering and restrictive voter ID laws. A fully national electoral system might provide greater fairness and consistency.

Extended campaign periods result from the primary system, increasing costs and campaign duration whilst potentially exacerbating divisions within parties.

Electoral distortion through the Electoral College can significantly exaggerate the power of smaller states and result in presidents who did not win the national popular vote, raising questions about democratic legitimacy.