Political Pluralism in the USA (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes
Political Pluralism in the USA
What is political pluralism?
Political pluralism is a political philosophy that emphasises the benefits of many different groups influencing the decision-making process. In a pluralist system, government takes into account the views of people from across the whole of society, many of whom are represented by pressure groups.
The traditional motto of the USA, displayed on the Great Seal of the United States, is e pluribus unum, meaning 'out of many, one'. This illustrates America's fundamental challenge: how to forge a united nation and coherent government from such a diverse range of people, states and ideas.
From its inception, the USA was intended to be a pluralist society in which many voices were heard. Initially, only male, white, wealthy and Protestant voices were allowed a hearing, much like the Founding Fathers themselves. Over time, a broader range of female, working-class, minority ethnic and diverse religious voices began to gain an audience. However, their struggle to be heard on equal terms continues today.
Constitutional basis for pressure groups
The First Amendment includes 'the right of the people peaceably to assemble'. This freedom of association gives pressure groups their constitutional right to exist in the USA.
Unlike political parties, pressure groups aim to influence those in power—whether the executive or the legislature—rather than winning that power for themselves through elections. This is the key distinction between pressure groups and political parties.
The pluralist perspective
In theory, pressure groups deliver political pluralism by encouraging politicians to take account of a broad range of ideas from across society. These ideas often conflict, and may pit different pressure groups against each other.
For example, Americans United for Life campaigns against abortion and is diametrically opposed to the aims of pro-choice Planned Parenthood, which operates as both a major health provider and an interest group in the political sphere.
Pluralists believe that this disagreement is healthy for democracy because it:
- Allows the people and government to hear both sides of the argument
- Enables better decisions after proper public debate and consideration
- Provides broader opportunities for political participation than joining a political party
Many of the most significant developments in US society, such as racial desegregation and the legalisation of abortion, would not have happened without the work of pressure groups.
The elitist theory critique
Proponents of elitist theory are critical of the role that pressure groups play in the USA. They argue that wealthy pressure groups spend heavily on:
- Advertising
- Legal challenges
- Professional lobbyists
- Electoral campaign spending
As a result, these well-funded groups have much more influence than poorly resourced groups. In effect, the country is still run by a powerful elite, albeit one that encompasses the leaders of wealthy pressure groups as well as the government.
Examples of elitist concerns
Elitist Theory in Practice: The NRA's Influence
The National Rifle Association (NRA) has been exceptionally successful in resisting the introduction of gun controls despite more than 60% of Americans supporting more restrictive gun laws in 2020. This demonstrates how a well-funded group can prevent change that a majority of the public supports.
Progressives also argue that wealthy corporations are able to use their resources to influence politicians to their advantage, leading to a system that prioritises the needs of big business over policies that could reduce inequality.
Typologies of pressure groups
Different typologies can be used to describe pressure groups in the USA.
Insider and outsider groups
Insider groups have close ties to government or one or both of the main two political parties. They may be well funded and spend heavily on lobbying and election campaigns, or possess specific professional expertise that ensures policy-makers listen to them.
Examples of insider groups include:
- American Medical Association
- US Chamber of Commerce
- National Rifle Association (NRA)
Outsider groups do not enjoy close links to the political establishment, so instead attempt to influence politicians by generating public pressure, perhaps through marches or direct action protests. They are frequently anti-establishment, meaning they are fundamentally opposed to the existing political system.
Outsider Group Action: Climate Direct Action
The group Climate Direct Action ran 'valve turner' protests in 2016 in which members turned off the valves on 15% of US crude oil imports for nearly a day. Several members were convicted on felony charges and the group was subsequently classified as 'extremist' by the Department of Homeland Security.
Promotional groups and interest groups
Promotional groups (also known as cause groups) promote a particular cause they believe will benefit society. Members of these pressure groups are driven by altruism and not self-interest.
Examples of promotional groups include:
- Environmental groups such as Greenpeace USA
- Gun control groups such as Everytown for Gun Safety
- Civil liberties groups such as the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
Interest groups campaign for the interests of the members of the group. They exist primarily to defend and advance the specific interests of their members.
Interest groups include:
- Unions such as the AFL-CIO, which focus on improving the rights, pay and working conditions of their members
- Business or trade groups, e.g. the US Chamber of Commerce
- Professional organisations, e.g. the American Bar Association
- Groups representing individuals from the same social group, e.g. the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) represents African-Americans
- Religious groups, e.g. the Christian Coalition of America
In US politics, the term 'interest group' is also sometimes applied to large corporations if they are acting in a similar way to pressure groups by lobbying government and funding election campaigns.
Not all groups fit neatly within a particular typology. The NRA, for example, can be described as an interest group, as it protects the interests of its members who are gun owners. However, it would also see itself as a promotional group, as it aims to protect the right of all Americans to bear arms.
Social movements
In addition to traditional pressure groups, which are structured organisations with a clear hierarchy and formal membership, an alternative model of issue-based participation exists. Social movements are much less formalised than pressure groups but play an important role in politics.
Traditional social movements began in the nineteenth century and campaigned for political and economic change, often making significant gains in the twentieth century. They include:
- The women's movement
- The labour movement
- The civil rights movement
Social movements that developed from the 1960s onwards have been described as 'new social movements' and include the environment movement and the anti-nuclear movement.
In the twenty-first century, social movements have proliferated, largely due to the invention of social media. Movements can be generated from a simple Twitter hashtag, and activists use social media to organise and recruit supporters at little or no cost. This has allowed 'start-up' social movements to mobilise large numbers of people and dominate the political agenda within months of being founded, a process that would previously have taken years or decades of painstaking campaigning and fundraising.
Recent examples of social movements include:
- The Occupy movement
- #MeToo
- Black Lives Matter
- March For Our Lives
- The youth climate movement
Key Points to Remember:
- Political pluralism means many different groups can influence government decision-making, representing people from across society.
- The USA's motto 'e pluribus unum' ('out of many, one') reflects the nation's commitment to pluralism from its founding.
- Pluralists argue that pressure groups enhance democracy by allowing diverse voices to be heard and promoting broader political participation.
- Elitist theory criticises the system, arguing that wealthy pressure groups have disproportionate influence, meaning the country is still run by a powerful elite.
- Pressure groups can be classified as insider/outsider groups (based on their relationship with government) or promotional/interest groups (based on their aims and motivations).
- Social movements are less formal than traditional pressure groups but can mobilise large numbers quickly, especially through social media, making them increasingly influential in twenty-first century politics.