Dealing with Offending Behaviour (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Recidivism
Recidivism refers to reoffending following judicial punishment - when an individual commits the same crime or a different crime again after being released from custody or completing their sentence.
UK recidivism statistics
The rates of reoffending present a concerning picture for the effectiveness of the prison system. Data from England and Wales between October 2011 and September 2012 revealed:
- 573,000 adult and juvenile offenders were cautioned, convicted, or released from custody
- 149,000 (26%) of these individuals committed a proven reoffence within one year
- 438,000 proven reoffences occurred within a year, averaging 2.9 offences per reoffender
These statistics suggest that prison may not be achieving its primary goal of preventing future crime for a substantial proportion of offenders. More than 1 in 4 offenders return to criminal behaviour within just one year of completing their sentence.
Explanations for high recidivism rates
Prisoners becoming institutionalised
Institutionalisation occurs when prisoners adapt to prison life and develop a sense of belonging within the institutional environment. Several factors contribute to this phenomenon:
- Prisoners receive regular meals, accommodation, and companionship from fellow inmates
- Basic physiological needs are met consistently
- For those from disadvantaged backgrounds with daily life struggles, prison can represent stability
- Hollin (1992) found evidence that prison became 'home' for some prisoners, with the predictable routine being preferable to the uncertainties of life outside
When inmates report that better employment prospects, family reintegration support, and relationship counselling would help prevent recidivism, it highlights how institutionalisation creates dependence on the prison environment.
Non-adherence to behaviourist principles
Behaviourist theory suggests that punishment is most effective when administered immediately after the undesirable behaviour occurs. However, the criminal justice system violates this principle of time contiguity:
- Sentencing occurs weeks or months after the crime is committed
- The temporal gap between the criminal action and punishment weakens the association
- Without a strong connection between behaviour and consequence, the deterrent effect is reduced
- This timing issue may explain why custodial sentences fail to prevent reoffending effectively
Mental health and addiction issues
Mental health problems and substance abuse disorders create additional vulnerability to reoffending. These underlying factors significantly impact recidivism rates:
- Unstable mental health increases the likelihood of criminal behaviour
- Addiction disorders are strongly linked to crime rates
- If these underlying issues remain untreated during incarceration, offenders remain at risk
- Prison environments may exacerbate existing mental health problems
Critical Finding: Coid et al. (2007) found that UK offenders who received mental health treatment while in prison were 60% less likely to reoffend than untreated inmates. They were also 80% less likely to commit violent acts upon release.
Research evidence
Malott and Fromader (2010)
Research Study: Post-Release Support and Recidivism
Participants: 102 Australian male offenders
Aim: To investigate offenders' perceptions of release and factors that might reduce recidivism likelihood
Findings: Offenders reported feeling unsupported upon release and identified that greater access to resources, treatment, and support services after release would help reduce recidivism
Significance: Supports the institutionalisation explanation by showing offenders struggle with the transition from organised prison life to unsupported outside environment
Hanson and Bussiere (1998)
Research Study: Sexual Offender Recidivism Predictors
Participants: Sexual offenders
Findings: Recidivism rates were relatively low at 13.4%, but main predictors included incomplete treatment programmes, level of sexual deviancy, age, prior offences, and juvenile delinquency history
Significance: Demonstrates that similar risk factors predict recidivism across different offender populations
Cartier et al. (2006)
Research Study: Substance Abuse and Reoffending
Focus: Drug abuse and recidivism rates
Findings: Clear relationship between substance abuse and reoffending rates, though this was not specifically linked to violent offences
Significance: Provides evidence that untreated addiction issues within prison systems contribute to reoffending
Behaviour modification in custody
Behaviour modification programmes represent one approach to reducing recidivism rates. These interventions are based on operant conditioning principles and aim to replace criminal behaviours with socially acceptable ones through reinforcement systems.
Most programmes operate using token economy systems within the controlled prison environment:
- Desired behaviours are rewarded with tokens
- Tokens can be exchanged for privileges or items
- Reinforcement schedules can be carefully controlled
- Undesirable behaviours result in loss of tokens or privileges
The prison environment provides ideal conditions for implementing behaviour modification because of the high level of control over environmental factors and limited reward options.
Evaluation of recidivism research
Methodological limitations
Research on recidivism faces several challenges that may affect the validity of findings:
Self-report bias: Offenders may not accurately report their reasons for reoffending, potentially showing external locus of control bias. Trammel (2002) found that reoffenders were more likely to attribute their behaviour to external factors rather than personal responsibility.
Detection rates: Official recidivism statistics only capture proven crimes that reach court, meaning actual reoffending rates are likely higher than reported.
Alternative explanations for prison use
Critics argue that high recidivism rates may be less important than other functions of imprisonment:
- Retribution: Society may value punishment regardless of its deterrent effect
- Incapacitation: Keeping dangerous individuals away from potential victims
- Societal problems: Recidivism may reflect broader issues like poverty and lack of mental health support rather than prison effectiveness
Research focus limitations
Most recidivism research concentrates on prison-based factors rather than post-release environmental conditions. This may overlook the importance of community support, employment opportunities, and social reintegration programmes in preventing reoffending.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Recidivism rates are concerningly high - 26% of UK offenders reoffend within one year, averaging 2.9 offences each
- Three main explanations exist: institutionalisation (prison becomes 'home'), poor timing of punishment (violates behaviourist principles), and untreated mental health/addiction issues
- Mental health treatment works - Coid et al. found 60% reduction in reoffending when prisoners receive mental health support
- Behaviour modification programmes use token economy systems based on operant conditioning to encourage prosocial behaviours
- Research limitations include self-report bias, underreporting of actual crime rates, and focus on prison rather than post-release factors