Explanations of Gender Development (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Social Learning Explanation of Gender Development
Introduction to social learning theory
Social learning theory (SLT) is a psychological approach that explains behaviour through both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining traditional learning theory with cognitive factors. When applied to gender development, this theory suggests that children acquire their gender identity and gender-appropriate behaviours by learning from their social environment.
According to SLT, children develop their understanding of gender roles through observing and interacting with others in their environment, including parents, peers, teachers, and media figures. The theory emphasises that gender development is not just about biology, but largely about what children learn from the world around them.
The core principle of social learning theory in gender development is that children are not passive recipients of gender roles, but active learners who observe, process, and imitate the behaviours they see around them. This makes the social environment crucial in shaping gender identity.
Core mechanisms of social learning
Direct reinforcement and differential reinforcement
Children are more likely to repeat behaviours that are rewarded or praised. In terms of gender development, boys and girls receive different types of encouragement for different behaviours. For example, boys might be praised for being active, assertive, or engaging in rough play, whilst they may be discouraged from being passive or staying close to their parents.
Differential reinforcement specifically refers to how boys and girls are systematically encouraged to display distinct gender-appropriate behaviours. This process helps children learn what society expects from their gender - essentially teaching them "I am a boy/girl, so I should behave like this."
The reinforcement children receive shapes which behaviours they continue to perform and which they avoid, gradually building up their repertoire of gender-appropriate actions.
Indirect (vicarious) reinforcement
Children don't only learn from their own direct experiences - they also observe what happens to other people. If a child sees someone else being rewarded for certain behaviour, they become more likely to imitate that behaviour themselves, hoping to receive similar positive consequences.
Examples of vicarious reinforcement in gender development:
- A young girl observes her mother receiving compliments when she wears makeup and a dress, leading the child to try replicating this behaviour
- A boy sees a male classmate being teased for displaying 'feminine' behaviour, making him less likely to engage in similar actions
- Children watch TV characters being praised or criticised for certain gender-related behaviours
This process of learning through observing others' experiences is called vicarious reinforcement and is particularly powerful in gender development as children constantly observe gender-related behaviours and their consequences.
Identification and modelling
Identification occurs when a child forms an emotional attachment to someone they see as 'like me' or someone they aspire to become. These role models are typically the same sex as the child and possess qualities the child finds attractive, such as high status or appealing characteristics.
Role models can be immediate figures like parents, teachers, or siblings, or they can be more distant figures such as celebrities or sports stars. The key factor is that children are drawn to models they can relate to or admire.
Modelling refers to the actual demonstration of behaviour that the child then imitates. When a mother tidies the house or prepares dinner, she is modelling stereotypically feminine behaviour. When a father demonstrates how to use tools or plays football, he models traditionally masculine behaviour. Children observe these demonstrations and later attempt to reproduce them.
Mediational processes
The Four Essential Mediational Processes
Social learning theorists identify four cognitive processes that must all be present for successful learning of gender behaviour:
- Attention: The child must pay attention to the role model's behaviour. For instance, a boy might closely watch his favourite footballer's actions on the pitch
- Retention: The child must remember what they observed. They need to retain the skills and behaviours they witnessed in their memory
- Motivation: The child must be motivated to perform the behaviour, usually because they identify with the model or expect positive consequences
- Motor reproduction: The child must be physically and intellectually capable of actually performing the behaviour they observed
If any element is missing, the child is less likely to successfully acquire and display the gender-appropriate behaviour.
Evaluation
Supporting evidence
A classic study by Caroline Smith and Barbara Lloyd (1978) provides strong support for social learning theory's explanation of gender development. The researchers observed interactions between adults and 4-6 month old babies who were dressed in either traditionally masculine or feminine clothing, regardless of their actual biological sex.
Research Study: Smith and Lloyd (1978)
Participants: 4-6 month old babies and adult observers
Procedure: Babies were dressed half the time in boys' clothes and half the time in girls' clothes, regardless of their actual sex. Adults interacted with the babies without knowing their true gender
Findings: When babies were perceived as boys, adults gave them hammer-shaped rattles and encouraged active, adventurous behaviour. When the same babies were perceived as girls, they were given cuddly dolls, called 'pretty', and reinforced for passive behaviour
Implications: This demonstrates that differential reinforcement occurs from infancy, with adults unconsciously treating children differently based on perceived gender rather than actual biological differences.
Explains changing gender roles
Social learning theory effectively explains why gender roles have evolved over time. Since the 1950s, there has been less rigid distinction between what society considers stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviour. This shift can be explained by changes in social expectations and cultural norms that have led to different forms of acceptable gender behaviour being reinforced.
Since there has been no corresponding change in human biology over this relatively short time period, social and environmental explanations like SLT provide a more convincing account than biological approaches for these cultural shifts in gender expectations.
Criticism: not a developmental theory
Key Limitation: Lack of Developmental Focus
Critics argue that social learning theory fails to adequately explain how learning processes change with age. The theory suggests that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age, from birth onwards. However, research suggests this may not be entirely accurate.
Andrew Dubin (1992) found that whilst children may notice same-sex role models from an early age, active selection and imitation of gender-role behaviours doesn't occur until later in development. This finding aligns with Lawrence Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory, which suggests children don't become truly active in their gender development until they achieve gender constancy.
The theory's lack of consideration for how age and cognitive maturation influence learning processes represents a potential limitation in explaining gender development across the lifespan.
Comparison with biological approaches
Social learning theory places minimal emphasis on the influence of genes and chromosomes, focusing almost exclusively on environmental factors in gender development. This contrasts sharply with biological explanations that highlight the role of hormones, brain structure, and genetic factors.
However, the David Reimer case demonstrated that it's not always possible to override biological influences through social learning alone. Modern researchers increasingly favour a biosocial theory of gender development, which suggests that innate biological differences between boys and girls are then reinforced and amplified through social interaction and cultural expectations.
This integrated approach acknowledges that both nature and nurture play important roles in gender development, rather than viewing them as competing explanations.
Comparison with psychodynamic approaches
Social learning theory and Freudian psychoanalytic theory both acknowledge the importance of same-sex parent identification in gender development. However, their explanations differ in scope and mechanism.
Social learning theory presents a broader view of identification that includes multiple role models beyond just parents - peers, teachers, media figures, and other significant others all contribute to gender learning. Freud's approach focuses more narrowly on the parent-child relationship and unconscious processes.
Additionally, Freud emphasised the role of unconscious forces in determining gender development, whilst social learning theory focuses on conscious cognitive processes. This represents a challenge to SLT, as unconscious influences may affect gender behaviour in ways that individuals cannot control or choose, limiting the theory's explanation of conscious learning processes.
Key Points to Remember:
- Social learning theory explains gender development through imitation, reinforcement, and identification with same-sex role models
- Differential reinforcement means boys and girls are encouraged to display different gender-appropriate behaviours from early infancy
- The mediational processes (attention, retention, motivation, motor reproduction) must all be present for successful gender learning
- Smith and Lloyd's study demonstrates that adults treat babies differently based on perceived gender, supporting the theory
- The theory effectively explains changing gender roles over time but has been criticised for not considering developmental factors