Influence of Culture & Media on Gender Development (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Influence of Culture & Media on Gender Development
Social learning theorists propose that gender-role behaviour develops primarily through environmental factors and socialisation processes. Two key mechanisms through which social norms about gender are transmitted are culture and media. These mechanisms often work together, as media frequently reflects, confirms, and sometimes challenges the dominant cultural norms surrounding gender roles.
Culture and media don't operate independently - they form an interconnected system where media often reinforces existing cultural norms while sometimes introducing new perspectives that can gradually shift cultural attitudes towards gender roles.
Key definitions
Gender roles are sets of behaviours and attitudes considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for another.
Culture encompasses the ideas, customs, and social behaviours of particular groups or societies.
Media refers to communication channels including television, film, and books through which information and entertainment are distributed.
Cultural influences on gender development
Cross-cultural research provides valuable insights into the nature-nurture debate regarding gender development. When gender-role behaviours appear consistent across different cultures, this suggests possible innate, biological differences. Conversely, when behaviours vary significantly between cultures, this indicates that socialisation and cultural norms play decisive roles in shaping gender development.
Cultural differences in gender roles
Research Example: Mead's New Guinea Study (1935)
Margaret Mead conducted one of the earliest cross-cultural studies examining gender roles among tribal groups in New Guinea. Her research revealed striking variations in gender behaviour patterns:
- The Arapesh displayed gentle and responsive characteristics, resembling typical Western stereotypes of femininity
- The Mundugumor showed aggressive and hostile traits, similar to common Western masculine stereotypes
- The Tchambuli demonstrated a complete reversal of Western gender expectations, with women taking dominant roles in organising village life whilst men remained passive and were considered 'decorative'
These findings suggested that direct biological relationships between sex and gender might not exist, indicating that gender roles could be culturally determined. However, Mead later acknowledged that she had underestimated the universal nature of many gender-typical behaviours, arguing instead that cultural norms largely influence how innate behaviours are expressed.
Cross-cultural similarities
Despite significant cultural variations, research has also identified consistent patterns across cultures. David Buss's 1995 study examined mate preferences across 37 countries on all continents, finding universal patterns in gender-role behaviour. Women consistently sought partners who could provide wealth and resources, whilst men prioritised youth and physical attractiveness in potential partners.
Additional research by Robert and Ruth Munroe in 1975 revealed that most societies organise labour division along gender lines, with males typically serving as 'breadwinners' and females often assuming 'nurturing' roles.
Evaluation of cultural research
Methodological concerns with Mead's research
Mead's work faces criticism for potential observer bias, as she may not have separated her personal opinions from her descriptions of Samoan life. Critics argue she made broad generalisations based on relatively brief study periods.
Derek Freeman conducted follow-up research decades later, arguing that Mead had been misled by some participants and that her preconceptions influenced her interpretation of events. However, Freeman's own account has been challenged for supporting his theoretical viewpoint.
Imposed etic
Cross-cultural research often involves Western researchers studying indigenous populations, creating risks of imposed etic - the inappropriate application of Western research methods and cultural understandings to other cultures. John Berry and colleagues suggest including local population members within research teams to guard against this bias, as David Buss did in his research.
The concept of "imposed etic" highlights a crucial methodological consideration in cross-cultural research - researchers must be aware of their own cultural biases and take steps to ensure they don't misinterpret behaviours through their own cultural lens.
Nature versus nurture considerations
Whilst cross-cultural research provides insights into different cultural practices affecting gender-role behaviour, it cannot definitively resolve the nature-nurture debate. The practical reality is that biological and social influences interact constantly from birth. Children begin socialisation into particular societies immediately, making it extremely difficult to separate where biological influences end and social influences begin. Most likely, complex interactions between both factors contribute to gender role development.
Media influences on gender development
Media provides role models with whom children may identify and wish to imitate. Children typically select role models of the same sex who engage in gender-appropriate behaviour, as this increases the likelihood of receiving reinforcement for similar behaviours.
Rigid gender stereotypes
Research demonstrates that media presents clear gender stereotypes. Men are typically portrayed as independent, ambitious 'advice-givers', whilst women appear as dependent, unambitious 'advice-seekers' (Bussey and Bandura, 1999).
Adrian Furnham and Elena Farragher's 2000 analysis of television advertisements found men more frequently shown in autonomous professional roles, whereas women often appeared in familial roles within domestic settings. This suggests media plays a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes about male and female behaviour.
Information provision and self-efficacy
Beyond confirming gender-typical behaviour patterns, media also provides information about the likely success of adopting particular behaviours. Children who observe others performing gender-appropriate behaviours develop increased confidence in their own ability to carry out such behaviours in future - a concept Bandura termed self-efficacy.
McGhee and Frueh's 1980 research found that children with greater exposure to popular media displayed more gender-stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes.
Evaluation of media research
Correlation versus causation
Although research generally concludes that media considerably influences children's gender role stereotype formation and maintenance, establishing clear cause-and-effect relationships proves difficult. Media output may simply reflect existing social norms about males and females, rather than causing such norms.
The vast majority of children experience regular media exposure, making it impossible to establish control groups for comparison. This limitation makes determining the direction of media effects challenging.
Counter-stereotypes in modern media
Most research focuses on how media reinforces traditional gender stereotypes. However, recent years have seen increasing examples of counter-stereotypes in media, such as Disney's "Brave," which challenge traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity.
Suzanne Pingree's 1978 research found that gender stereotyping decreased when children viewed television advertisements featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. Interestingly, pre-adolescent boys' stereotypes became stronger following exposure to non-traditional models, possibly explained by boys' desire to maintain views that contrast with adult perspectives.
The emergence of counter-stereotypes in modern media represents a significant shift from traditional portrayals, though research suggests that the impact of these representations can vary significantly based on the viewer's age and gender.
Summary
Key Points to Remember:
- Cross-cultural research reveals both differences and similarities in gender roles across societies, suggesting complex interactions between biological and cultural factors
- Margaret Mead's pioneering research demonstrated significant cultural variations in gender behaviour, though her methodology faced later criticism
- Media provides role models and typically reinforces rigid gender stereotypes through consistent portrayal patterns
- Establishing causation in media influence studies proves challenging due to the widespread nature of media exposure and lack of control groups
- Modern media increasingly features counter-stereotypes that may challenge traditional gender role expectations, though effects vary by age and gender