Scientific Processes (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Ethical Issues
Introduction
Psychological research faces a constant tension between conducting valuable scientific studies and protecting the rights and wellbeing of participants. This balance is one of the most important considerations in psychology, requiring researchers to conduct worthwhile and innovative research whilst simultaneously respecting participant dignity and welfare.
Ethical issues arise when there is tension between participants' rights and researchers' goals to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data. These conflicts create dilemmas about what is acceptable in the pursuit of scientific knowledge.
The BPS code of ethics
The British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics is a quasi-legal document that provides guidelines for psychologists in the UK about acceptable and unacceptable behaviour when working with research participants. This code serves as the professional standard that researchers must follow to maintain their credibility and employment.
While the BPS code is described as "quasi-legal," it carries significant professional weight. Breaking these guidelines may not result in imprisonment, but can lead to serious consequences including job loss and professional exclusion.
The BPS code is built around four core principles:
- Respect - treating participants with dignity
- Competence - conducting research professionally
- Responsibility - being accountable for research decisions
- Integrity - maintaining honesty and transparency
Major ethical issues in psychological research
Informed consent
Informed consent requires that participants understand what they are agreeing to before taking part in research. Participants must be made aware of the study's aims, procedures, their rights (including the right to withdraw at any point), and how their data will be used. Only after receiving this information can participants make a genuinely informed decision about participation without feeling coerced or obliged.
The Researcher's Dilemma
From a researcher's perspective, providing full information about a study's aims may compromise the research. If participants know exactly what is being investigated, their behaviour may become artificial rather than natural, potentially making the study meaningless.
Deception
Deception involves deliberately misleading participants or withholding information from them during any stage of the investigation. This practice is directly linked to informed consent - participants who have not received adequate information (or have been deliberately misled) cannot truly give informed consent.
Despite these concerns, deception can sometimes be justified if it does not cause undue distress to participants.
Example of Acceptable Deception
In a study investigating the effects of energy drinks, it might be acceptable not to tell participants that other groups are consuming different substances, as this knowledge could influence their behaviour and compromise the study's validity.
Protection from harm
Participants should not face any greater risk through their involvement in research than they would encounter in their daily lives. This protection extends to both physical and psychological harm. Psychological harm includes being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate, or being placed under undue stress or pressure.
A key aspect of protection from harm is ensuring participants understand they can withdraw from the investigation at any point without penalty or negative consequences.
Privacy and confidentiality
Participants have the right to control information about themselves, which is their right to privacy. When this privacy is compromised, confidentiality must be protected. Confidentiality refers to participants' legal right, enshrined in the Data Protection Act, to have personal data protected.
Privacy rights also extend to the research setting itself, meaning that institutions or geographical locations where studies take place should not be named in research reports, ensuring participant anonymity is maintained.
Ways of dealing with ethical issues
BPS code of conduct implementation
Professional psychology bodies like the BPS have established ethical guidelines that researchers have a professional duty to observe. While breaking these guidelines won't result in imprisonment, researchers may face serious professional consequences including job loss.
These guidelines are implemented by ethics committees at research institutions, who often use a cost-benefit approach to evaluate research proposals. This approach weighs the potential ethical costs against the expected benefits of the research to determine whether studies are ethically acceptable.
Dealing with informed consent
Researchers should provide participants with a consent letter or form containing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate. Once participants agree, this document is signed.
Special Considerations for Vulnerable Populations
For investigations involving children under 16, parental consent is required. When working with children or vulnerable populations, special considerations apply to ensure consent is truly voluntary and informed.
Dealing with deception and protection from harm through debriefing
At the conclusion of any study, participants should receive a comprehensive debrief. This process is crucial for addressing ethical concerns raised by deception and ensuring participant wellbeing.
The Debriefing Process: Step-by-Step
Step 1: Inform participants about the true aims of the investigation and any details that were withheld during the study, such as the existence of other groups or experimental conditions.
Step 2: Explain how their data will be used and provide the right to withhold their data if they wish.
Step 3: Reassure participants that their behaviour during the study was typical and normal to address any natural concerns about their performance.
Step 4: In cases where participants have experienced stress or embarrassment, provide counselling support.
Dealing with confidentiality
The most common approach to maintaining confidentiality is to maintain anonymity by recording no personal details whatsoever. Instead, researchers typically refer to participants using numbers or initials when writing up investigations.
In case studies, psychologists often use initials when describing individuals involved. Throughout the entire research process, from briefing to debriefing, participants should be reminded that their data will be protected and kept confidential.
Alternative methods of obtaining consent
When standard informed consent might compromise research validity, researchers have developed three alternatives:
Presumptive consent involves asking a similar group of people (not the actual participants) whether they would find the proposed study acceptable. If this group agrees, researchers presume the actual participants would also consent.
Prior general consent requires participants to give permission to take part in multiple different studies, including some that will involve deception. By agreeing to this arrangement, participants effectively consent to being deceived in future research.
Retrospective consent involves asking participants for their consent during the debriefing process, after they have already participated in the study. Participants may not have been aware of their participation initially, or they may have been subjected to deception during the research.
Limitations of Alternative Consent Methods
None of these alternative methods are considered ideal by researchers, as each presents its own ethical challenges and limitations. They should only be used when standard informed consent would genuinely compromise the research's validity.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Ethical issues arise when participant rights conflict with research goals - researchers must follow BPS guidelines built on respect, competence, responsibility and integrity
- Informed consent requires participants to understand aims, procedures and their right to withdraw, though full disclosure may compromise research validity
- Deception can sometimes be justified but must be addressed through comprehensive debriefing that reveals true aims and offers counselling if needed
- Protection from harm means participants face no greater risk than daily life, with the right to withdraw at any time
- Confidentiality is typically maintained through anonymity, avoiding recording personal details and using numbers or initials instead of names