Religion in the World (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes

Religiosity in the Contemporary World

Secularisation theory

Secularisation theory suggests that religion has lost its influence over society as the world changes and modernises.

Key definitions and theorists

Bryan Wilson (1966) described secularisation as the reduction of the "social importance" of religious beliefs, practices and organisations. This process is believed to result from social transformations brought about by modern, urban, industrial society.

The founding fathers of sociology anticipated this secularisation process:

Auguste Comte argued that science represented the final stage in human intellectual development. He believed modern society would be dominated by scientific rather than religious thinking.

Max Weber predicted that modern society would be characterised by technology, rationality and bureaucracy. He argued that rational thinking and efficiency would replace magic, myth and tradition.

Evidence for secularisation in the UK

Church attendance and membership patterns provide supporting evidence for secularisation theory:

• UK church membership decreased significantly - falling by over 1 million people between 1992 and 2013
• Attendance at religious ceremonies such as baptisms and marriages has also declined since 1980
• Many parents now choose non-religious 'naming ceremonies' instead of baptisms
• Some couples prefer cohabitation (living together) or civil marriage rather than church weddings

Problems with measuring secularisation

However, using church attendance as a measure of secularisation has several limitations:

• Davie (1994) argued that people may not attend church because of their lifestyle, even though they still believe in God
• Church attendance doesn't reveal actual belief levels. The 2011 census found 59.3% of people in England and Wales still identified themselves as Christians, suggesting this isn't a reliable measure of secularisation
• Comparisons with the past require old statistics which may not be reliable
• The term secularisation is sometimes applied only to Christianity, making it difficult to know what's being measured when discussing religion's decline generally

Religious pluralism and choice

Pluralism refers to the idea that society is very diverse, containing a wide range of opinions. Religious pluralism has both created and been influenced by diversity in types of religious organisations and beliefs in society.

Pluralism as evidence against secularisation

Some sociologists view pluralism as evidence against secularisation:

• The increase in New Age movements since the 1980s suggests that the sacred is becoming important again - this is called resacralisation
• Pluralism can be seen as evidence of religion being transformed rather than declining, showing a trend towards individualisation where people freely search for their own religious meanings (becoming 'spiritual shoppers')

Pluralism as evidence supporting secularisation

Other sociologists see pluralism as supporting evidence for secularisation:

• Although some people have joined new religious movements, they represent only a small proportion of the population
• Some sociologists claim the growth in new religious movements has been overestimated

Postmodernists like Lyotard (1984) argue that people have lost faith in the old metanarratives of organised religion and politics. Zygmunt Bauman (1992) suggested that a religious vacuum has been left behind - a "crisis of meaning". He argued this vacuum is being filled by new and diverse types of religiosity such as New Age movements.

Desacralisation

Desacralisation refers to supernatural belief having less force in society.

Weber predicted desacralisation through his concept of disenchantment - the idea that magic and myth were becoming less important in modern society.

Bruce (1995) sees science and rational explanations as undermining religion. Instead of turning to the supernatural or religion to explain problems, people turn to science. This change in belief patterns provides another possible explanation for secularisation.

The church's changing role in society

Differentiation and lost functions

Differentiation occurs when society becomes more specialised, meaning each institution has fewer functions than in the past. The church used to have important educational functions, but since the 19th century, separate institutions have taken over this role with increased state involvement. Bruce (1995) argues that religion has become less important in society as some of its previous functions have been taken over.

Disengagement from the state

Disengagement happens when the church becomes separated from the state, resulting in less influence for religious institutions.

Parsons (1974) claims that although the church may have lost functions and become disengaged from the state and politics, religion can still be important in everyday life and encourage shared values in society.

Religion remains closely linked to politics in places like the Middle East and Northern Ireland.

Secularisation of religious institutions

Some religious institutions have become 'secularised' themselves:

• Many churches now allow divorced people to marry
• American sociologist Herberg (1956) suggests church attendance shows commitment to community rather than religion - people attend church to meet friends and feel part of something
• However, not all religious institutions have become more secular. The New Christian Right doesn't compromise their beliefs to fit in with society - they oppose divorce, homosexuality and premarital sex, and some extreme elements also oppose women working outside the home

Globalisation's impact on religion

Globalisation represents how the world is becoming increasingly interconnected, affecting religions in multiple ways.

Three main effects of globalisation on religion

Peter Beyer (1994) identified three different impacts of globalisation on religion:

Religion and national boundaries

Historically, most countries had strong links with a state religion - they would be known as 'a Christian country', 'a Muslim country' and so forth. England developed its own version of Christianity called the Church of England. Wars between countries were often fought over differences in religious beliefs.

However, due to globalisation, national boundaries are being broken down, meaning national identity and religious identity are now less closely linked than previously.

In the West, secularisation and multiculturalism have helped break down the importance of religion as part of national identity. Most people in the UK no longer closely connect ideas of 'Britishness' to Christianity. In contrast, Nanda (2008) argues that worshipping Hindu gods is now closely linked to nationalism in India. A 2007 survey found that religious belief is growing among Indians, despite globalisation.

However, religion continues to be important both in the EU and worldwide. Some countries still identify strongly with their state religion (e.g. Islam in Egypt). The proportion of people with a religion is actually growing worldwide.

Religious identity is becoming more globalised. People are exposed to a variety of religions, and technology allows believers to be part of international religious communities.

Global religious movements

Pentecostalism

Pentecostalism (a form of Christianity) has grown rapidly worldwide, especially in poorer parts of Latin America, Africa and Asia. David Martin (1997) contrasted Pentecostalism with Catholicism, describing it as a more traditional version of Christianity.

Martin argues that Pentecostalism succeeds mainly because it's designed to make its members feel empowered and important. By contrast, traditional religions like Catholicism make them feel powerless and insignificant.

Critique of secularisation theory

Peter Berger's argument

Peter Berger argues that we need to rethink secularisation theory:

How globalisation has changed religious practice

• Religious groups often make use of global communication networks (such as the internet) to recruit more members, though this can sometimes be contradictory as their values might clash with those of the modern globalised world
• Postmodernist David Lyon (2000) says religion has relocated to the sphere of consumption - religion has become a consumer product that people can now 'pick and mix'. Religious experiences are no longer tied to the traditional structures of the church
• One benefit of the globally-connected society has been to increase opportunities to reduce conflict through interfaith dialogue (different religions talking to each other)

Fundamentalism

Giddens (1991) argues that globalisation creates insecurity and doubt due to its often conflicting and confusing messages. In contrast, fundamentalist teachings offer a simple, reliable worldview.

Fundamentalism involves the fundamental, literal interpretation of religious texts and provides a set of strict rules to live by. Fundamentalist groups fervently follow their beliefs - they want to create a more conservative society and return to 'traditional values'.

Islamic fundamentalism in Iran

Christian fundamentalism in the USA