Green Crime, Human Rights, and State Crimes (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Green Crime, Human Rights, and State Crimes
Green crime
Green crime refers to criminal activities that cause environmental harm and damage. These offences affect both human communities and natural ecosystems, making them particularly significant in our interconnected global society.
Causes and context
The rise in green crime is closely linked to globalisation and increased consumer demands. As Beck argues, we now live in a global-risk society where the pursuit of consumer goods has led to manufactured risks, including greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change.
Environmental disasters like the Chernobyl nuclear accident and the BP oil spillage in the Gulf of Mexico demonstrate how green crimes transcend national boundaries due to our shared ecosystem.
Theoretical perspectives on green crime
Conflict theorists, particularly Marxists, argue that green crime is primarily committed by powerful groups such as large corporations and governments working alongside political elites. This perspective suggests that environmental harm often serves the interests of those with economic and political power.
Beck's risk society theory explains how late-modern society's focus on increased production to meet consumer demands has created environmental hazards that affect everyone, regardless of social class or geographical location.
Green criminology approaches
Green criminology takes an ecocentric view, which sees environmental harm as interconnected with human wellbeing and the future of the planet. This contrasts sharply with the anthropocentric view often adopted by corporations, which prioritises human exploitation of natural resources for economic benefit.
White argues that green criminology extends beyond traditional criminology by examining any activity that causes environmental harm, regardless of whether it is technically illegal. This broader approach recognises that much environmental damage occurs through legal but harmful practices.
Types of green crime
South (2008) categorises green crime into two distinct types:
1. Primary green crimes
These involve direct destruction and degradation of the Earth's natural resources, including:
- Air pollution
- Deforestation
- Animal rights abuses
- Water pollution
2. Secondary green crimes
These involve violations of existing environmental laws and regulations, such as:
- Illegal dumping of toxic waste
- Breaching health and safety environmental rules
- Cases like Bhopal and Chernobyl disasters
Evaluation of green crime
Strengths:
- Draws attention to increasing environmental risks and global concerns
- Highlights the need to address environmental damage affecting both humans and other species
Limitations:
- Green crime's focus on harm rather than legality makes it based on subjective opinions
- There are no clear boundaries for defining or studying what constitutes green crime
Human rights and state crimes
State crimes are illegal activities that violate national or international laws and are carried out by governments or their representatives. These crimes present unique challenges because those meant to enforce the law are the ones breaking it.
McLaughlin's classification of state crimes
McLaughlin (2001) identifies four main categories of state crime:
1. Political crimes
- Corruption amongst government officials
- Censorship of media and suppression of information
- Activities carried out by politicians and civil servants
2. Crimes by security forces
- Deaths occurring in police custody
- Use of torture by authorities
- Ethnic cleansing operations
- Actions by police, armed services, and secret services
3. Economic crimes
- Official violations of health and safety legislation
- Exploitation of workers and resources
4. Social and cultural crimes
- Institutional racism within government systems
- Discrimination based on social characteristics
Human rights perspective
Schwendinger (1970) argues that crime should be understood as violations of people's fundamental human rights, not just law-breaking. His definition suggests that states commit crimes when they deny people equal opportunities through practices such as:
- Imperialism and economic exploitation
- Racism and discrimination
- Sexism and gender-based oppression
- Homophobia and related prejudices
Critical perspectives
S. Cohen (1996, 2001) provides important criticisms of Schwendinger's broad human rights approach:
- The definition of human rights crimes is too extensive, as it suggests any human rights violation should be considered illegal
- There is no clear consensus on what actually constitutes human rights
- Limited international agreement exists on which practices should be defined as criminal
Cohen also argues that due to governments' power to conceal and justify their actions, the true extent of state control is difficult to measure, making such crimes more invisible than conventional crimes.
Techniques of neutralisation
Governments often use techniques of neutralisation to justify their human rights violations:
Examples of Neutralisation Techniques:
- Denial of responsibility: Claiming officials were simply following orders (as seen with Nazi concentration camp guards)
- Appeal to higher loyalties: Justifying actions as necessary for national security, such as imprisoning people without trial
Critical criminological perspective
Marxist criminologists argue that powerful groups within the state can define their own activities as legal. For example, military actions and invasions of countries like Iraq can be presented by UK and US governments as necessary parts of the war on terror, rather than as criminal acts.
However, critics of this view argue that so-called state crimes are not actually criminal acts. They contend that increased censorship and restrictions on suspected terrorists' human rights are necessary measures for protecting national interests.
Key Points to Remember:
- Green crime includes both primary crimes (direct environmental destruction) and secondary crimes (breaking environmental laws)
- Green criminology takes an ecocentric view, focusing on environmental harm regardless of legality
- State crimes fall into four categories: political, security force, economic, and social/cultural crimes
- Human rights approaches to state crime suggest violations of basic human rights should be considered criminal
- Techniques of neutralisation help governments justify their harmful actions to maintain legitimacy