Gender and Identity (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Gender and Identity
Gender represents one of the most influential aspects of personal and social identity. Understanding how gender shapes our experiences requires examining both individual identity formation and broader social structures that maintain gender distinctions.
Gender is a complex social phenomenon that operates at multiple levels - from individual identity to societal structures. This multifaceted nature makes it both fascinating and challenging to study from a sociological perspective.
What does it mean to be a gendered person?
The distinction between sex and gender forms the foundation of sociological analysis. Sex refers to biological differences between males and females, while gender encompasses the social and cultural characteristics associated with being masculine or feminine. These characteristics vary across societies and are primarily learned through socialisation processes.
Feminist sociologists emphasise gender's role in shaping life opportunities, particularly regarding power relations. Despite progress such as girls outperforming boys academically, men and women do not occupy equal positions in society. Women continue to perform the majority of housework and childcare, comprise most low-paid workers, and earn considerably less than men on average.
Contemporary research reveals multiple ways of being male or female within any given society, though patriarchy appears as a common theme in gender relations globally. The extent of individual control over gendered identity remains debated - many women face marginalisation when resisting dominant gender models, yet many individuals today exercise considerable agency in creating their gendered identity.
A critical debate in gender studies concerns how much control individuals have over their gendered identity. While some people can exercise considerable agency in shaping their gender expression, others face significant social consequences when challenging dominant gender norms.
Sociological understanding of gender has progressed beyond studying only women to include examination of masculinity construction, reflecting a more comprehensive approach to gender analysis.
The process of gender-role socialisation
Gender role socialisation describes how individuals learn culturally appropriate masculine or feminine behaviour. This process begins in early family life and continues through education and work experiences, reinforced by media representations.
Power differences between men and women manifest through various channels including decision-making processes, political roles, domestic arrangements, sexual relations and rituals. However, these agreed conventions may not always translate into practice, demonstrating that gender operates as a flexible rather than fixed identity marker.
The flexibility of gender identity challenges traditional binary thinking. While societies may promote clear distinctions between male and female roles, actual lived experiences often reveal much more complexity and variation.
Many societies promote a binary view of gender, treating male and female as the dominant patterns. Feminist sociologists have shown gender's importance as an identity aspect, highlighting how women experience different social worlds from men in education, work and family contexts. Different gender roles and expectations feature prominently in socialisation processes.
Contemporary sociology recognises diversity in gender experiences. Female identity has become fragmented, varying according to factors such as age, ethnicity and class. Some postmodernist theorists argue that people can now choose their gender identity from an expanding range of available options.
Canalisation represents one mechanism through which gender role socialisation occurs - parents channel children's interests towards toys and activities considered appropriate for their sex.
Masculinity and identity
Masculine identity must also be understood as a social construct affected by patriarchal culture. Expectations surrounding masculinity change across time and between different societies.
Sociologist Raewyn Connell (2005) identifies various forms of masculinity that develop and change over time. According to Connell, hegemonic masculinity represents the dominant form in contemporary Western societies, while middle-class heterosexual masculinity tends to be most prominent. This form attempts to maintain dominance over subordinate groups, including gay men, though it remains subject to challenge.
Research Example: Connell's Four Groups in Gender Crisis
Connell's research identified four distinct groups of men experiencing crisis in the gender order:
- Young working-class men who 'live fast and die young', engaging in exaggerated masculinity involving violence acceptance and hostility towards homosexuals and women
- Environmental movement participants who emphasise equality and cooperation over competitiveness, consciously opposing hegemonic masculinity elements
- 'Very straight gays' who acted conventionally masculine but maintained more egalitarian relationships with partners than typical heterosexual hegemonic masculinity
- Men experiencing various forms of gender identity crisis
Different perspectives on gender
Simone de Beauvoir (1972) argued that females become women through acquiring feminine characteristics and learning feminine behaviour, rather than being born as women. This perspective emphasises that masculinity and femininity result from nurture - how individuals are raised - rather than biological determinism.
The Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Gender
Feminists argue that since gender represents a social product, discrimination against women constitutes a cultural creation that can be transformed. They advocate for societal change to achieve equality between women and men, viewing current gender arrangements as unfair to women.
Key sociologists
Sherry Ortner posed the influential question in 1974: "Is female to male as nature is to culture?" Ortner claimed male dominance was universal due to men's association with culture, making it 'natural' for men to control women. She argued women faced universal subordination through involvement with activities viewed as beneath cultural pursuits that men engaged with.
Academic perspectives on gender continue to evolve. Ortner later revised her position, acknowledging that her claim about universal male dominance was overstated. This demonstrates how sociological understanding develops through ongoing research and critical reflexion.
Contemporary applications
Traditional notions of female identity face abandonment as women's participation and success in paid employment increases. New generations of women assert their rights more actively, with rising numbers initiating divorce and choosing careers over traditional marriage and motherhood paths.
Women's expanded labour market participation brings greater recognition as consumers, leading mass media to increasingly target single women. This shift means women more commonly view consumption and leisure as central identity factors, while traditional domestic roles become less prominent.
Social Policy and Gender Equality
Social policy developments reflect changing gender relations. The Equal Pay Act 1970 legislated equal pay for women performing similar work to men, with 1984 amendments extending this principle to work of equal value.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Gender differs from sex - gender represents social and cultural characteristics while sex refers to biological differences
- Gender role socialisation occurs throughout life via family, education, work and media influences
- Multiple masculinities exist alongside the dominant hegemonic form, as demonstrated by Connell's research
- Gender operates as a social construct that can be challenged and changed, according to feminist perspectives
- Contemporary society shows increasing diversity in gender expressions and life choices for both men and women