Role and Function of the Education System (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Consensus and Conflict Theories
What are consensus theories?
Consensus theories view education as serving positive functions for both individuals and society. These theories, including functionalism and the New Right, believe education has two primary roles: secondary socialisation and preparing students with essential skills for employment. They argue that education helps maintain social stability and operates as a meritocracy.
A meritocracy is a system where success depends on individual talent and effort rather than background or connections. In a truly meritocratic education system, students who work hard and demonstrate ability will achieve better results and greater opportunities.
Functionalists
Functionalist theory emphasises education's role in creating social unity and preparing citizens for adult life. Émile Durkheim argued that education serves as a key mechanism for secondary socialisation, ensuring that young people learn shared values and develop social solidarity - a sense of belonging to and caring about society.
Talcott Parsons expanded on Durkheim's ideas by describing education as a bridge connecting family life with wider society. He identified two different sets of standards that children experience:
- Particularistic standards: Found in families, where children receive individual treatment based on personal relationships
- Universalistic standards: Applied in schools, where all students face the same rules and assessment criteria regardless of their background
This transition helps students understand fairness and prepares them for adult working life where universal standards apply.
Worked Example: Particularistic vs Universalistic Standards
Particularistic standards in families:
- A parent might excuse lateness because their child was helping with chores
- Different bedtimes for children based on individual needs
- Flexible rules depending on family circumstances
Universalistic standards in schools:
- All students must arrive by 9am regardless of home situation
- Same homework deadlines apply to every student in the class
- Identical assessment criteria used for all students
Functionalists maintain an optimistic view of education's economic role. Davis and Moore argued that education responds effectively to economic demands by producing workers with appropriate skills through role allocation - the process of directing students towards suitable future careers based on their abilities and interests.
New Right
New Right theorists support applying business principles to education, believing this will improve standards and efficiency. They advocate for marketisation - introducing competition and consumer choice into the education system. This approach assumes that parental choice will drive schools to improve their performance to attract students.
New Right thinkers influenced Conservative governments and the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition (2010-15). They promote individual choice in schooling options, including selective and non-selective education. Chubb and Moe (1990) argued that market forces in education create beneficial competition that raises standards and increases efficiency across the system.
Criticisms of consensus theory perspectives
Major Criticisms of Consensus Theories:
Critics argue that functionalist theories ignore persistent educational inequalities affecting working-class students, boys, and certain ethnic minority groups who consistently achieve lower results than other groups. These theories assume education benefits everyone equally, but evidence suggests this is not the case.
Consensus theories also overlook negative school experiences that many students face. The assumption that education is organised beneficially for all students is questioned when considering issues like bullying, inadequate resources, or unsuitable teaching methods.
New Right approaches face criticism for assuming all families can access available choices. Practical barriers such as transport costs may prevent some students from attending distant schools, meaning that choice actually reproduces rather than reduces inequalities.
What are conflict theories?
Conflict theories present a critical view of education, arguing that it reinforces existing social inequalities rather than promoting fairness. The two main conflict perspectives are Marxism and feminism, both seeing education as a tool that maintains existing power structures.
Marxism
Marxist theorists argue that education serves capitalism by preparing students for their future class positions while making this process appear natural and fair. They claim education socialises working-class students for routine manual work whilst encouraging middle-class students to pursue higher education and professional careers.
Marxists challenge the meritocracy concept, arguing it is a myth designed to make the education system appear fair when it actually advantages those from privileged backgrounds.
Pierre Bourdieu (1977) introduced the concept of cultural capital - the knowledge, skills, interests, and behaviours that middle-class families pass to their children. This cultural capital provides advantages in education because schools operate using middle-class values and expectations. Working-class students face disadvantages because school culture feels unfamiliar, whilst middle-class students feel comfortable and succeed more easily.
Worked Example: Cultural Capital in Action
Middle-class cultural capital advantages:
- Familiarity with 'standard' English and formal language
- Knowledge of classical music, literature, and art discussed in lessons
- Confidence in questioning teachers and participating in discussions
- Understanding of educational expectations and how to navigate the system
Working-class cultural capital challenges:
- Different language patterns may be seen as 'incorrect'
- Less exposure to cultural references used in curriculum
- May feel uncomfortable challenging authority figures
- Less knowledge of how to access higher education pathways
Louis Althusser (1971) described education as part of the ideological state apparatus - institutions that maintain capitalist society by promoting particular ideas and values rather than using direct force. Through education, the ruling classes transmit their values and persuade students to accept capitalist principles as normal and desirable.
Bowles and Gintis (1976) identified the hidden curriculum - lessons taught through school organisation and daily routines rather than formal subject content. Students learn to respect authority, follow rules, and behave obediently. These researchers also developed the correspondence principle, highlighting similarities between school and workplace expectations:
- Both require uniforms and punctuality
- Both use reward systems (grades/promotions) for good performance
- Both involve time regulation (timetables/contracts)
- Both expect respect for authority figures (teachers/bosses)
This correspondence prepares students for their future working lives by establishing appropriate attitudes and behaviours.
Feminism
Although girls now outperform boys at all educational levels, feminists argue that education continues to reinforce patriarchal ideology - ideas that maintain male dominance in society. This leads to women entering lower-paid employment and holding weaker economic positions despite educational success.
Until the mid-1990s, boys achieved better results than girls across all educational levels. Feminists attributed girls' underachievement to patriarchal society that undervalued female education. Since girls began outperforming boys, feminist attention has shifted to examining why educational success doesn't translate into workplace equality.
Gendered subject choices occur when students select traditionally male or female subjects rather than choosing based purely on interest or ability. Girls often choose subjects considered traditionally feminine whilst avoiding those seen as masculine, and vice versa. Feminists link this pattern to both family socialisation and school processes that encourage traditional gender roles.
Despite educational success, women still face employment disadvantages, often working in lower-paid sectors and occupying fewer senior positions than men.
Criticisms of conflict theory perspectives
Key Criticisms of Conflict Theories:
Some theorists, including functionalists and New Right supporters, dispute the Marxist view that education is unfair. They argue that education does provide opportunities for social mobility - students can improve their social position through educational achievement.
Feminist theories have been criticised for underestimating improvements in women's positions. Young women in their early twenties now earn more than men of the same age in many areas, suggesting that women's economic situation is improving.
Critics also argue that feminists focus too narrowly on women's issues whilst neglecting growing concerns about boys' underachievement, particularly among working-class boys.
Comparing consensus and conflict theories
Both theoretical approaches recognise education's importance in shaping society, but they interpret its effects very differently:
Similarities:
- Both see education as preparing students for work
- Both recognise education's role in transmitting values and norms
- Both acknowledge education's influence on social structure
Key differences:
- Purpose: Consensus theories see education as maintaining beneficial social order; conflict theories see it as maintaining harmful inequalities
- Outcomes: Consensus theories emphasise positive results like social unity and economic preparation; conflict theories highlight negative outcomes like class reproduction and gender discrimination
- Solutions: Consensus theories support current systems with minor improvements; conflict theories advocate major structural changes
Functionalists view education positively as meeting both individual needs and societal demands. Marxists regard education as primarily serving capitalist interests and ruling-class benefits. Feminists focus specifically on how education reinforces gender inequalities despite apparent female success.
The debate between these perspectives continues to influence educational policy and practice, with different political parties and educational leaders drawing on different theoretical traditions to justify their approaches.
Key Points to Remember:
- Consensus theories see education as beneficial for society - functionalists emphasise social integration whilst New Right supporters promote market competition
- Conflict theories view education as maintaining inequalities - Marxists focus on class disadvantages whilst feminists highlight gender issues
- Key concepts include meritocracy, cultural capital, hidden curriculum, and correspondence principle - each explaining different aspects of how education operates
- Both perspectives agree education is powerful in shaping society but disagree completely about whether this influence is positive or negative
- Contemporary relevance - these theories continue influencing educational policies, from academy programmes (New Right) to efforts addressing inequality (conflict theories)