Theoretical Considerations (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Theoretical Considerations
Theoretical considerations refer to how different sociological theories influence the research process. Understanding whether theories take a structural or social action approach helps explain how researchers choose their methods, select research areas, and interpret findings.
While researchers aim to remain objective, their theoretical perspectives inevitably shape their work. Each approach brings certain assumptions about how society operates, which influences every stage of the research process from initial design to final conclusions.
How theory influences research
Sociological theories create an underlying agenda that researchers bring to their work. For example:
- Marxists and feminists often seek to highlight inequalities and promote social change
- Functionalists may selectively use evidence to support their view that society shares common values
- Interpretivists focus on understanding individual meanings rather than measuring social patterns
Behind most sociological research lies a particular theoretical viewpoint that the researcher hopes to support or explore. This means that complete objectivity in sociological research is practically impossible.
Structural approaches
Structural theories operate as macro-theories that explain social behaviour through external forces and large-scale social structures. These approaches view human behaviour as learned responses shaped by the social environment rather than individual choice.
Key characteristics
Structural theories adopt a top-down approach because they start with society-wide structures and institutions to explain individual behaviour. The major structures that shape behaviour include:
- Family systems
- Educational institutions
- Religious organisations
- Economic systems
- The State and political structures
Structural approaches assume that individuals have limited control over their behaviour because they are shaped by powerful social forces beyond their immediate control.
Examples of structural perspectives
- Functionalism and New Right theories
- Marxism and neo-Marxism
- Certain aspects of feminism
Preferred methodology
Structural theorists favour quantitative methods designed to generate facts, statistics, and measurable patterns. This approach overlaps significantly with positivism, which treats social research similar to natural science by seeking objective, measurable data.
Social action approaches
Social action theories represent the alternative to structural approaches. Originally developed by Max Weber, these micro-theories focus on how individuals create society through meaningful social interactions.
Key characteristics
Action theories adopt a bottom-up approach because they start with individual actions and interpretations rather than large-scale structures. These theories argue that:
- Society emerges from countless meaningful encounters between individuals
- People actively interpret their social environment
- Individuals exercise agency - the ability to make choices and act based on their interpretations
- Social order appears stable because these individual interactions create recognisable patterns
The concept of agency is central to social action approaches - it emphasises that people are not passive recipients of social forces but active creators of their social world.
Examples of social action perspectives
- Interactionism
- Postmodernism
- Some elements of feminism
Preferred methodology
Action theorists favour qualitative methods that generate understanding of the meanings behind behaviour. This approach aligns with interpretivism or phenomenology, which emphasises understanding subjective experiences and meanings.
The influence of feminist perspectives
Feminist analysis demonstrates how theoretical starting points affect research choices. Feminist researchers begin with the premise that inequalities exist between men and women across social institutions. This theoretical position influences:
- Research area selection - focusing on gender relations and patriarchal structures
- Interpretation of results - viewing findings through the lens of gender inequality
- Research agenda - seeking evidence to support arguments for social change
Feminist perspectives show clearly how a researcher's theoretical starting point creates a specific research agenda that shapes every aspect of the study from design to conclusions.
Case study: Eileen Barker's research on the Moonies
Case Study: Eileen Barker's Research on the Moonies
Study: Barker, The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?, 1984
Participants: Members of the Unification Church ('Moonies'), British population sample, individuals who attended Moonie sessions but did not join
Aim: To investigate whether the Unification Church used 'brainwashing' techniques to recruit members, as commonly alleged in media coverage
Procedure: Barker employed a triangulation approach using multiple methods:
- Distributed 40-page questionnaires to every Moonie couple living in Britain
- Conducted in-depth interviews lasting 4-8 hours with a smaller sample
- Undertook participant observation by living within a Moonie community for over two years
- Used comparative analysis by comparing Moonie members with the general British population and with individuals who attended sessions but chose not to join
Findings:
- No evidence of brainwashing techniques
- Members were predominantly middle-class individuals seeking structure and meaning in their lives
- High turnover rates suggested that the needs the organisation met were temporary rather than permanent
- People joined voluntarily based on the appeal of the group's offerings
Evaluation: Strengths
- Methodological triangulation provided comprehensive data from multiple sources
- Extended participant observation offered deep insights into community life
- Comparative approach allowed identification of what made joiners different from non-joiners
- Research was welcomed by the Moonies themselves, providing unusual access to a typically secretive group
Evaluation: Weaknesses
- Potential researcher bias - living within the community for two years may have affected objectivity
- Ethical concerns about the extent of participation and potential deception
- Limited generalisability - findings may only apply to this specific religious group
- Time-consuming methods make the research difficult to replicate
Contemporary applications
Modern sociological research rarely constrains itself to purely structural or social action approaches. Most contemporary studies employ triangulation or realist approaches that combine quantitative and qualitative data collection methods.
This methodological flexibility allows researchers to capture both the structural forces that shape behaviour and the individual meanings that people attach to their experiences.
The trend towards methodological pluralism reflects a growing recognition that complex social phenomena require multiple theoretical and methodological approaches to understand fully.
Key Points to Remember:
- Theoretical considerations shape every aspect of the research process, from topic selection to result interpretation
- Structural approaches use top-down, macro perspectives with quantitative methods to study how social forces shape behaviour
- Social action approaches use bottom-up, micro perspectives with qualitative methods to understand individual meaning-making
- Feminist perspectives demonstrate how theoretical starting points create research agendas focused on inequality and social change
- Modern research often combines multiple theoretical approaches and methods through triangulation rather than following single perspectives