The Impact of the Papal Reform Movement (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Impact of the Papal Reform Movement
Introduction: The spiritual incentive for crusading
The pope faced a significant challenge when calling for the First Crusade. He needed to persuade knights to leave their lands and families behind for a dangerous journey to the Holy Land, but he could not offer them financial rewards. In fact, crusading would cost knights several times their annual income. To overcome this obstacle, Pope Urban II offered something that money could not buy: an indulgence. This was a spiritual reward that would allow crusaders to escape punishment in the afterlife, effectively acting as a guarantee of salvation.
The financial burden of crusading was enormous. Knights had to fund their own equipment, supplies, and travel costs for a journey that could last several years. Despite this massive expense, Urban II could not promise any monetary compensation—instead, he had to offer something of even greater value to medieval Christians: the promise of eternal salvation.
The indulgence came in two different versions, each reflecting evolving church theology and the changing needs of potential crusaders.
Remissio peccatorum: The first crusade indulgence
What was it?
Remissio peccatorum translates as 'remission of all sins'. This was the first version of the crusade indulgence, offered by Urban II when he launched the First Crusade in 1095. The concept was straightforward but powerful: undertaking a crusade to free the Holy Land would be such a difficult and demanding journey that God would forgive the crusader for all their sins. This indulgence was marketed as an extreme form of pilgrimage that would guarantee entry to heaven, regardless of how sinful a person's life had been.
Urban II's promise
In a letter written to the people of Bologna in 1096, Pope Urban II explained the remissio peccatorum:
"If any men among you go there not because they desire earthly profit but only for the salvation of their souls and the liberation of the Church, we, acting as much on our own authority as on that of all archbishops and bishops in the Gauls, through the mercy of almighty God and the prayers of the Catholic Church, relieve them of all penance imposed for their sins, of which they have made a genuine and full confession."
This source reveals several important aspects of the indulgence. The crusader must have the right motivation (salvation and liberation of the Church, not profit), must make a genuine confession, and would then be relieved of all penance for their sins. Note how this letter also reflects the just war theory by emphasising that the crusade was not about earthly gain but about a holy purpose.
Why was this so appealing?
The remissio peccatorum was incredibly attractive to medieval knights for several reasons:
The problem of sin in medieval society: Knights lived in what was considered an extremely sinful society. Violence was so commonplace that instead of being illegal, it was only banned on certain days of the week. Spilling blood was an unavoidable part of knightly culture. This created a serious spiritual problem because priests constantly warned that people would be punished in the afterlife for violent behaviour, but they could not tell anyone precisely how much penance or good works they needed to do to make up for their sins.
The endemic violence of medieval society created an impossible dilemma for knights. Their entire social role and training revolved around warfare and fighting, yet this very lifestyle was considered deeply sinful. Priests could not provide a clear answer about how much penance would be sufficient to atone for a lifetime of violence, leaving knights uncertain about their salvation.
A solution to an impossible dilemma: The crusade indulgence solved this problem perfectly. Knights could continue doing what they were trained for—committing acts of violence—but now in a holy cause. They could sleep soundly knowing they had done enough to compensate for all their earlier sins. They would earn their salvation by fighting, rather than by trying to calculate the right amount of prayer or charitable works.
Connection to the Gregorian Reform Movement
The appeal of the crusade indulgence was strengthened by the Gregorian Reform Movement. This was a group of churchmen led by Pope Gregory VII who wanted to improve the Church by returning it to an earlier, more pious form. They popularised the idea of imitatio Christi (copying the life of Christ), which was seen as the surest way to guarantee entry into heaven.
Imitatio Christi (copying the life of Christ) was a central concept of the Gregorian Reform Movement. The idea was simple but profound: the best way to ensure salvation was to live as Christ had lived. For wealthy knights accustomed to comfort and luxury, this meant embracing simplicity, hardship, and suffering—exactly what crusading would require.
The crusade offered the perfect opportunity to practice imitatio Christi. By going on crusade, knights would live a simple lifestyle without their usual comforts—no castles, no fine food, no home luxuries. This mirrored Christ's own simple life and suffering. For knights accustomed to wealth and comfort, this voluntary poverty and hardship demonstrated their religious commitment and made their journey even more spiritually valuable.
The plenary indulgence: A new and improved offer
Why was a second version needed?
Despite the appeal of the remissio peccatorum, not everyone was convinced to take the cross. By the 12th century, religious beliefs were evolving. Church teaching was increasingly emphasising that people could never do enough good works to fully make up for their sins. This created anxiety about whether even a crusade would be sufficient for salvation.
In response, the papacy developed a new type of indulgence called the plenary indulgence. This second version was superior to the first in two important ways:
Key differences between the two indulgences:
- It was offered as a gift, so there was no question about whether the crusader had earned it or done enough to deserve it
- It had stronger theological backing through the concept of the Treasury of the Church
The Treasury of the Church
The Treasury of the Church was an early version of a theory called the Treasury of Merit. The idea was that the Catholic Church possessed a store of spiritual merit accumulated from Christ and the saints. The Church could distribute this merit as it saw fit, offering it to crusaders as a gift rather than something they had to earn through their own efforts. This made the indulgence more secure and certain—it came from the Church's spiritual treasury, not from the crusader's own imperfect attempts at penance.
Timeline of the plenary indulgence
The plenary indulgence was first used in 1145 by Pope Eugenius III. It was preached by the famous monk Bernard of Clairvaux when recruiting for the Second Crusade. By 1198, it had become the standard form of crusade indulgence, replacing the earlier remissio peccatorum.
The aim of freeing Jerusalem
Why Jerusalem mattered
Jerusalem was chosen as the destination for the First Crusade because it held immense religious significance for medieval Christians. It had been the setting for the last days of Christ's life, and two locations were considered especially sacred:
- Calvary: the hill where Christ was crucified
- The Holy Sepulchre: the cave tomb from where Christ was believed to have been resurrected (come back to life)
The sacred geography of Jerusalem:
Jerusalem was not just another city—it was the physical location where the most important events in Christian theology had taken place. Every medieval Christian knew that Calvary was where Christ died for humanity's sins, and the Holy Sepulchre was where he conquered death itself through resurrection. Walking the same ground where Christ had walked, suffered, and triumphed was the ultimate spiritual experience.
These sites made Jerusalem the ultimate destination for Christian pilgrimage. The tradition of pilgrimage to Jerusalem was well-established, dating back to the early 4th century when Empress Helena, mother of Roman emperor Constantine the Great, undertook the first recorded pilgrimage there. By the 11th century, this tradition was deeply ingrained in Christian culture, and many pilgrims made the difficult journey. For example, in the 1060s, approximately 7,000 German pilgrims set off together to visit the Holy Land.
The crusade concept could build on this existing tradition, presenting itself as a pilgrimage with a military purpose—to secure access to these holy sites for all Christians.
What was new in the 1090s?
It is important to understand that Muslims had controlled Jerusalem since 638 and had generally allowed Christian pilgrims access to the holy sites. So Muslim rule of Jerusalem was not new. However, the situation had begun to deteriorate by the 1090s due to the rise of the Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor and the Holy Land.
The changing situation in the 1090s:
The Seljuk expansion had several negative effects on Christian pilgrimage:
- The pilgrimage route became less secure from raids and attacks
- Fewer cities along the route remained under Byzantine Christian control
- The tolls charged to pilgrims became extortionate
- The overall prospect of maintaining safe access to Jerusalem for western pilgrims looked increasingly bleak
Nothing catastrophic had occurred by 1095, but the trend was worrying. This gave Urban II a justification for calling a crusade—not just to visit Jerusalem, but to secure it and protect pilgrimage routes.
Different interpretations: What chroniclers said about Jerusalem
The unique feature of the crusading concept was that Jerusalem's sacred nature was now presented as being under threat from Muslim occupation. This theme appears in several chronicle accounts of Urban II's sermon at the Council of Clermont in 1095, though different chroniclers emphasised different aspects:
How three chroniclers interpreted Urban's message:
Baudri of Dol claimed that Urban focused on the idea that the sacred nature of Jerusalem had been polluted by the presence of Muslims. This presentation appealed to concerns about ritual purity and the desecration of holy sites.
Robert of Reims wrote that Urban emphasised Jerusalem as a very attractive, wealthy and spiritual location for pilgrims. Like Baudri, he stressed the theme of pollution—that Muslim presence defiled the holy places.
Guibert of Nogent suggested that Urban explored the role Jerusalem played in the story of Christ's Passion (the events from the Last Supper to the Crucifixion) rather than focusing on any direct threat to the city itself. This interpretation emphasised emotional and devotional connections to Jerusalem rather than political or military concerns.
These varying accounts show that Urban's message was multifaceted. He could appeal to different motivations: concern about pollution of sacred space, desire to visit attractive pilgrimage sites, and emotional connection to the places where Christ suffered and died.
Exam guidance
When writing about the impact of the papal reform movement, make sure to:
- Explain the connection between ideas: don't just list facts about indulgences—explain why they were necessary and how they worked together with other factors
- Use specific evidence: mention dates (1095, 1145, 1198), names (Urban II, Eugenius III, Bernard of Clairvaux), and concepts (remissio peccatorum, plenary indulgence, Treasury of the Church)
- Show understanding of change: explain how the indulgence evolved from version one to version two and why this change was necessary
- Link to broader themes: connect the indulgence to the violent nature of medieval society, the Gregorian Reform Movement, and the pilgrimage tradition
- Analyse significance: explain why Jerusalem mattered and what was new about the situation in 1095
For longer essay questions, you might need to evaluate the relative importance of the papal reform movement compared to other factors motivating crusaders. Be prepared to argue whether spiritual incentives (indulgences) or other factors (desire for land, adventure, family pressure) were more significant.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Two types of indulgence: Remissio peccatorum (1095) offered remission of sins earned through the hardship of crusading; plenary indulgence (from 1145) was a gift from the Church's Treasury of Merit
- Medieval knights lived in a violent society and feared punishment in the afterlife, making the indulgence's promise of salvation extremely attractive
- The Gregorian Reform Movement popularised imitatio Christi (copying Christ's life), and crusading offered the perfect way to do this through simple living and suffering
- Jerusalem was sacred because of Calvary (where Christ was crucified) and the Holy Sepulchre (where he was resurrected), making it the ultimate pilgrimage destination
- The situation changed in the 1090s when Seljuk Turkish expansion made pilgrimage routes less secure, giving Urban II justification to call for military action to protect access to the holy sites