Ainsworth's Work on Attachment (Edexcel A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Ainsworth's Work on Attachment
Background and early research
Mary Ainsworth worked as John Bowlby's assistant for several years and developed his theoretical ideas into an empirical framework for understanding different types of attachment between infants and caregivers. Her work transformed attachment theory from a broad concept into a measurable phenomenon with distinct categories.
The Uganda study
Moving to Uganda in the 1950s, Ainsworth conducted naturalistic observations of 28 Ganda infants and their mothers in their homes. She observed infant-mother interactions over an extended period, focusing on how babies used their mothers during everyday activities.
Her observations revealed two distinct patterns:
- Securely attached children used their mother as a safe base from which to explore their environment, showing confidence in venturing away whilst maintaining proximity
- Insecurely attached children tended to cling to the mother and refused to venture away from her with confidence, displaying greater distress and dependency
Ainsworth discovered that mothers who were sensitive to behavioural cues from their child were more likely to form a secure attachment. In contrast, mothers who could not interpret these cues formed insecure attachments with their child. This finding suggested that maternal sensitivity—the ability to perceive and respond appropriately to infant signals—played a key role in determining attachment quality.
The Strange Situation
In 1963, Ainsworth began a second observational study in Baltimore, USA, using middle-class families recruited before the baby was born. She observed parent-child interactions for four hours each month from the first few weeks of birth. This longitudinal approach provided evidence that sensitive, responsive parenting was associated with children who cried less and appeared happier.
When the children reached 12 months old, Ainsworth and her colleague Barbara Wittig invited the families to a laboratory environment to examine how babies would respond to their safe base in an unfamiliar setting. This developed into the Strange Situation Procedure.
The Strange Situation procedure
Ainsworth and Wittig developed a 20-minute standardised procedure to examine infant-parent interactions in an unfamiliar environment. The procedure involved eight episodes which systematically introduced stress through the presence of a stranger and separation from the mother.
| Episode | Description |
|---|---|
| 1 | Mother and child are invited to play together in a laboratory playroom by a researcher, who then leaves the room |
| 2 | The mother sits on a chair and the child plays on the floor with toys in the room |
| 3 | A stranger enters the room with mother and child and talks to the mother |
| 4 | The mother leaves the room, leaving the stranger with the child |
| 5 | Mother returns to the room and the stranger leaves |
| 6 | The parent leaves the room and the child is alone |
| 7 | The stranger enters the room and tries to interact with or comfort the child |
| 8 | The mother returns and the stranger leaves the room |
Observed behaviours
The behaviour of the children was recorded, with particular attention paid to four key aspects:
- Separation behaviour: the behaviour of the child when separated from the mother
- Stranger response: how the child responded to the presence of or comfort from the stranger
- Reunion behaviour: how the child behaved when the mother returned
- Exploring: the extent to which the child felt safe to explore the room
These four behavioural categories formed the basis for classifying children into different attachment types. By systematically observing how children responded across these dimensions, Ainsworth could identify consistent patterns that distinguished secure from insecure attachment.
Attachment types
Using the different ways children responded in the Strange Situation, Ainsworth classified them into three attachment types. Each type showed distinct patterns of behaviour across the episodes.
Type A: Insecure-avoidant attachment
Attachment Type A: Insecure-Avoidant (Approximately 20% of Sample)
Behavioural Characteristics:
- Separation anxiety: Not upset when the mother leaves the room
- Stranger fear: Stranger able to interact and comfort the child
- Reunion behaviour: Did not seek closeness of mother on her return and ignored her. When picked up by mother they avert their gaze from her
- Exploring: Able to explore the room independently but does not check mother's presence and use her as a safe base
Home Observations: Insensitive, interfering and rejecting mothering observed
Interpretation: These children appeared independent because they were accustomed to rejection from their caregiver. They had learned that their mother would not respond to their needs, so they became self-reliant and showed little distress at separation.
Type B: Secure attachment
Attachment Type B: Secure (Approximately 70% of Sample)
Behavioural Characteristics:
- Separation anxiety: Very distressed when mother leaves the room
- Stranger fear: Avoids stranger and resists stranger comfort
- Reunion behaviour: Seeks comfort from mother. Happy that she has returned and quick to soothe
- Exploring: Able to explore the room from the safe base of the mother. This stopped when the mother left the room. After reunion comfort they were able to explore again
Home Observations: Sensitive, responsive mothering observed
Interpretation: These children showed healthy attachment patterns, using their mother as a secure base for exploration and being easily comforted upon reunion after separation.
Type C: Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment
Attachment Type C: Insecure-Resistant/Ambivalent (Approximately 10% of Sample)
Behavioural Characteristics:
- Separation anxiety: Very intense distress when mother leaves the room
- Stranger fear: Shows signs of stranger fear
- Reunion behaviour: Child approaches mother on her return but pushes her away angrily
- Exploring: Clung to mother and hardly explored at all. Cries more than other types
Home Observations: Inconsistent mothering observed; warm and responsive on occasion and rejecting on other occasions
Interpretation: Children exposed to inconsistent parenting strategies, experiencing both loving and rejecting behaviours, were more likely to be ambivalent towards the mother. They were uncertain whether they could rely on their mothers, which resulted in clingy children who did not trust the mother to stay close to them and who displayed anger upon her return.
Key findings and conclusions
Correlating the attachment types with observations made about parent-child interactions at home, Ainsworth concluded that sensitive, responsive parenting encouraged trust and safety for the child, which resulted in a secure attachment type. Mothers who ignored the behavioural cues of their children and were insensitive to their needs tended to have children who were more independent (avoidant) because they had become accustomed to rejection.
Central Conclusion
The research highlighted the role the mother plays in the attachment process. Ainsworth suggested that attachment type was associated with maternal sensitivity—the quality of care provided by the mother directly influenced the type of attachment that developed.
Evaluation
Strengths
Standardised and controlled procedure: The Strange Situation Procedure is a structured observation where the episodes are highly standardised and conducted in a controlled environment. The behaviour of the children can be recorded and reviewed by multiple observers to establish inter-rater reliability. This makes it a reliable research tool.
Widely used and replicated: The Strange Situation has been widely used and is a highly regarded standardised procedure for classifying attachment types. Its extensive use across different studies demonstrates its value in attachment research.
Quantifiable data: The procedure produces clear, observable behaviours that can be categorised and quantified, allowing for systematic comparison between children.
Weaknesses
Ecological validity concerns: The procedure lacks ecological validity as the child may behave differently in more familiar surroundings. The laboratory environment is artificial and may not reflect how attachment operates in everyday life. The procedure may not be useful for measuring attachment types in children accustomed to separation, such as those who attend regular day care.
Ethical concerns: The Strange Situation causes distress to the child involved in the procedure. Although observers are trained to recognise intense distress and stop the procedure if they feel the child will become more than momentarily upset, the deliberate induction of stress in young children raises ethical questions.
Cultural limitations: The procedure may be inappropriate to use in cultures where separation from a parent is uncommon. For example, in Japanese culture, children are rarely separated from their caregiver, so the Strange Situation causes the child great distress and therefore becomes a meaningless tool for measuring attachment type. Additionally, Ainsworth's conclusion about sensitive, responsiveness and attachment may reflect a westernised view of attachment. Some cultures encourage independence, so it only applies to western child-rearing practices.
Based on animal research: The procedure was largely based on research by Harlow, where rhesus monkeys were exposed to threatening stimuli. Whilst this supports the concept of an evolutionary basis for attachment, animal research may not be wholly applicable to human development.
Sample characteristics: The Baltimore study used middle-class families, which may limit the generalisability of findings to other socioeconomic groups.
Individual differences research
Marina Fuertes et al. (2006)
Marina Fuertes and colleagues conducted research examining the sensitive responsiveness of mothers and the attachment bond secured by attentive mothers. They studied 48 Portuguese babies and mothers, observing them regularly from birth until they reached their first birthday.
Study: Fuertes et al. (2006) - Maternal Sensitivity vs. Infant Temperament
Method: The researchers assessed the baby's personality in the first few months and the mother's sensitivity to the baby's needs. When the babies were 12 months old, they used the Strange Situation to categorise them into different attachment types.
Findings: The study found that it was not only the sensitive responsiveness of the mother that determined the attachment type, but that the individual temperament or personality of the child had an overwhelming influence on the type of attachment that developed.
Implications: This research contradicts Ainsworth's maternal sensitivity hypothesis, highlighting instead the role of individual differences in the personality of the child. It suggests that attachment development is more complex than Ainsworth's model implies, involving an interaction between parental behaviour and child characteristics.
Kagan's temperament hypothesis
Kagan (1984) proposed an alternative explanation for the association between childhood and adulthood attachment styles. He suggested that the innate individual temperament of a child can dictate whether secure or insecure attachment is formed, which has little to do with the formation of an internal working model.
According to Kagan's temperament hypothesis, a child with a difficult temperament will impact on the quality of the relationship formed with a parent. This temperament can equally influence subsequent relationships. It is the individual temperament, not the internal working model, that affects the quality of relationships.
Kagan's hypothesis can be used to critique Ainsworth's research into attachment, particularly the association made between sensitive, responsive mothering and attachment type. He argues instead that the child's response in the Strange Situation is a result of their temperament rather than the attachment type they have developed through interactions with their mother. Avoidant children are innately fearless and independent, rather than ignored by a parent.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation, an eight-episode standardised procedure to assess attachment types in 12-month-old infants in a laboratory setting.
- She identified three attachment types: Type A (insecure-avoidant, 20%), Type B (secure, 70%), and Type C (insecure-resistant/ambivalent, 10%).
- Maternal sensitivity—the ability to perceive and respond appropriately to infant signals—was found to be associated with secure attachment formation.
- The Strange Situation has been criticised for lacking ecological validity, raising ethical concerns about inducing distress, and showing cultural bias towards western child-rearing practices.
- Individual differences research (Fuertes et al., 2006; Kagan, 1984) challenges Ainsworth's emphasis on maternal sensitivity, suggesting that the child's innate temperament plays a substantial role in attachment development.