Feminist movements (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
Feminist movements in post-war America
Introduction
During the 1960s and 1970s, significant feminist movements emerged across America, fighting for women's equality and challenging long-standing discrimination. These movements developed as women recognised the gap between their contributions to society and their legal and social status, particularly as they made up half the workforce by 1960 yet faced widespread inequality.
The emergence of feminist movements in this period was not spontaneous but resulted from decades of growing awareness about systematic gender inequality, combined with the civil rights momentum of the era that inspired women to organise for their own rights.
The growth of feminist movements
The feminist movements of the 1960s emerged from clear evidence of gender inequality in American society. Women faced systematic discrimination in multiple areas of their lives, which became increasingly difficult to ignore as more women entered the workforce.
Key inequalities women faced
Women in 1960s America encountered significant barriers that limited their opportunities and independence. They typically earned substantially less than men for performing identical work, reflecting deep-seated assumptions about women's value in the workplace. Many employers regularly dismissed women from their jobs when they married, based on the belief that married women should focus on domestic responsibilities rather than careers.
Educational opportunities remained limited for women, with many universities and professional schools maintaining quotas or outright bans on female students. In the workplace, women faced persistent discrimination and were often excluded from leadership positions or professional advancement opportunities.
Perhaps most significantly, women lacked adequate support for balancing work and family responsibilities, as proper maternity leave policies and childcare services were virtually non-existent. This created an impossible choice between career advancement and family life.
Critical Understanding: The discrimination women faced was not isolated incidents but part of a systematic structure that reinforced women's dependence and limited their economic independence. This systematic nature made individual solutions insufficient - legal and social change was essential.
Presidential Commission on the Status of Women and the Equal Pay Act
PCSW investigation
In 1961, President Kennedy established the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (PCSW) to investigate the challenges facing American women. This government commission represented the first official recognition that women's inequality deserved federal attention and investigation.
The commission's 1963 report provided concrete evidence of widespread discrimination against women. The findings documented systematic pay inequality, employment discrimination, and limited access to education and professional opportunities. These official findings gave legitimacy to women's complaints about inequality and provided a foundation for legal and political action.
The PCSW represented a significant shift in how the federal government viewed women's issues. Previously, women's inequality was considered a private matter or natural consequence of gender roles, but the commission's establishment acknowledged it as a legitimate public policy concern requiring government intervention.
Equal Pay Act of 1963
Following the PCSW report, Congress passed the Equal Pay Act in June 1963, which mandated that men and women should receive equal pay for performing the same work. This legislation marked the first federal law specifically designed to address gender discrimination in the workplace.
Limitation Alert: While the Equal Pay Act represented significant progress, its impact was limited by narrow definitions of "equal work" and weak enforcement mechanisms. Employers could still pay women less by slightly modifying job titles or responsibilities, highlighting the need for broader anti-discrimination legislation.
The National Organisation of Women
Formation and early development
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited employment discrimination based on race or sex, inspiring women's rights activists to organise more effectively. In 1966, the National Organisation of Women (NOW) was founded to campaign specifically for women's equality and to ensure that new anti-discrimination laws were properly enforced.
NOW quickly grew to become the most prominent feminist organisation in America, attracting 40,000 members by the early 1970s. However, the organisation's membership was predominantly white and middle-class, which limited its ability to represent the experiences of all American women.
Membership Composition: NOW's predominantly white, middle-class membership reflected broader patterns in 1960s activism but also highlighted important limitations. Working-class women, women of colour, and women facing different economic challenges often found their specific concerns inadequately addressed by mainstream feminist organisations.
The women's liberation movement
NOW was part of a broader "women's liberation movement", sometimes called "Women's Lib", which encompassed various groups and organisations working towards feminist goals. These movements challenged traditional gender roles and fought for women's rights to participate fully in American society, including politics, business, and professional careers.
The movement's more radical elements demanded fundamental changes to social structures and cultural attitudes, while more moderate groups focused on achieving specific legal and policy reforms.
Roe vs Wade
Legal Case Study: Roe vs Wade (1969-1973)
The Challenge: In 1969, "Jane Roe" (a pseudonym used to protect her identity) wanted to terminate her pregnancy but was prevented by Texas law. She challenged Henry Wade, the District Attorney of Texas, in court.
The Argument: Jane Roe's legal team argued that women should have the right to make decisions about their own bodies, claiming that restrictive abortion laws violated constitutional rights to privacy and personal autonomy.
The Outcome: The case reached the Supreme Court, which ruled in 1973 that women had a constitutional right to legal abortion, establishing that a woman's right to choose was protected under the Constitution.
The Reality: By the time the Supreme Court ruled, Jane Roe had already given birth and placed her baby for adoption, highlighting how slowly the legal system responded to women's urgent needs.
The women's movement identified abortion rights as a crucial issue for women's equality and autonomy. In many states, abortion was illegal, forcing women to seek dangerous illegal procedures or carry unwanted pregnancies to term.
This landmark decision represented a major victory for the feminist movement and fundamentally changed women's reproductive rights and autonomy in America.
Equal Rights Amendment
Congressional passage
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which would have guaranteed women equal rights with men under the Constitution. This represented the feminist movement's attempt to secure comprehensive legal equality through constitutional change.
The ERA's passage through Congress demonstrated significant political progress for women's rights, showing that feminist arguments had gained mainstream political support.
Opposition and failure
However, the ERA faced strong opposition, led by activists like Phyllis Schlafly who argued that equal rights would have "undesirable" consequences. Opponents claimed the amendment would force women into military combat roles, legalise same-sex marriage, and eliminate gender-separate facilities like public restrooms.
Critical Failure: Schlafly's campaign proved successful, and the ERA failed to receive ratification from enough states to become part of the Constitution. This failure highlighted the limits of feminist progress and the strength of traditional gender role supporters, demonstrating that legal victories required sustained political and social support.
Timeline of key events
- 1960: Half of the American workforce consists of women
- 1961: President Kennedy establishes the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (PCSW)
- 1963: PCSW report published; Congress passes the Equal Pay Act
- 1964: Civil Rights Act prohibits employment discrimination based on sex
- 1966: National Organisation of Women (NOW) founded
- 1972: Equal Rights Amendment passed by Congress but fails to achieve state ratification
- 1973: Supreme Court rules in Roe vs Wade, establishing constitutional right to abortion
Impact and significance
The feminist movements of the 1960s and 1970s achieved significant legal and social changes that transformed American society. The Equal Pay Act and Civil Rights Act provided legal frameworks for challenging discrimination, while organisations like NOW created sustained pressure for women's rights.
The Roe vs Wade decision fundamentally changed women's reproductive rights and autonomy, while the ERA's failure demonstrated the ongoing resistance to complete gender equality. These movements established women's rights as a permanent feature of American political discourse and created foundations for continued progress in subsequent decades.
Lasting Transformation: The period marked a crucial shift from accepting women's inequality as natural to recognising it as a problem requiring legal and social solutions. This conceptual change proved as important as specific legislative victories, creating a foundation for ongoing advocacy and reform.
However, the predominantly white, middle-class leadership of major feminist organisations also highlighted the need for more inclusive approaches to women's rights activism.
Key Points to Remember:
- The Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (1961) provided official documentation of gender discrimination, leading to the Equal Pay Act of 1963
- The National Organisation of Women (NOW), founded in 1966, became the largest feminist organisation with 40,000 members, though membership was predominantly white and middle-class
- Roe vs Wade (1973) established constitutional protection for abortion rights after "Jane Roe" challenged Texas abortion laws
- The Equal Rights Amendment passed Congress in 1972 but failed to achieve state ratification due to organised opposition led by Phyllis Schlafly
- By 1960, women comprised half the workforce but faced systematic discrimination in pay, employment, education, and career advancement opportunities