The medieval doctor (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
The mediaeval doctor
During the mediaeval period, physicians continued to rely heavily on ancient Greek medical theories, particularly those developed by Hippocrates and Galen. While there was some gradual progress in medical education and practice, most doctors still accepted these classical ideas without question and believed in supernatural causes for many diseases.
The persistence of ancient Greek medical theories for over a thousand years demonstrates how deeply embedded these ideas were in mediaeval society. Despite their limitations, these theories provided a systematic framework that mediaeval doctors could understand and apply, even when they weren't always effective.
Theoretical foundations from ancient Greece
Mediaeval doctors built their practice around two major ancient theories that had remained largely unchanged for centuries. Most physicians would have readily accepted Hippocrates' Theory of the Four Humours alongside Galen's Theory of Opposites as fundamental medical truth, rarely questioning their validity or effectiveness.
These ancient theories were not always helpful for treating patients, and in many cases could make conditions worse rather than better. The unquestioning acceptance of these theories often prevented medical progress and could lead to harmful treatments like excessive bloodletting.
Unfortunately, despite this, most mediaeval doctors continued to believe strongly in supernatural explanations for disease, viewing illness as divine punishment or the result of evil influences rather than natural causes.
Treatment methods and medical tools
Mediaeval physicians typically carried a range of specialised equipment to help them diagnose and treat their patients. Their medical toolkit would commonly include several essential items designed to work within the framework of humoral theory.
The vademecum served as a portable diagnosis book that doctors could carry with them, literally meaning "go-with-me" in Latin. Leeches were used extensively for balancing what doctors believed were the humours in the blood, while posies and other highly scented objects were thought to ward off miasma - the bad smells that mediaeval physicians believed caused disease.
The miasma theory - the belief that diseases were caused by "bad air" or foul smells - was a dominant explanation for illness transmission during the mediaeval period. This led to the widespread use of aromatic herbs and perfumed objects as preventive medicine.
Doctors also relied heavily on various herbs for mixing natural remedies, often following complex recipes passed down through generations. Additionally, many physicians used zodiac charts to predict when illnesses might occur and to suggest the most favourable times for treatment, reflecting their belief that celestial bodies influenced human health.
Advances in medical training and education
A significant development during the mediaeval period was the establishment of new universities specifically for training physicians. Important medical schools were founded in cities like Bologna and Padua, with Padua's medical school being particularly notable by 1403.
At these institutions, students were required to visit sick people as part of their practical training, giving them real-world experience alongside their theoretical studies. The medical schools encouraged scholarly debate about the best treatments for various diseases, and some even began allowing students to observe human dissections to better understand anatomy and how the body functioned.
The introduction of human dissection into medical education was revolutionary for its time. Previously, medical knowledge was based entirely on ancient texts and animal dissection. Direct observation of human anatomy marked an important shift towards evidence-based learning.
The mediaeval period also saw the emergence of medical licensing for doctors returning from these new educational institutions. New medical textbooks were being produced specifically for students to study, and scholars such as Rhazes began making important contributions to medical knowledge, representing small but significant steps forwards in medical understanding.
Growing emphasis on observation
While mediaeval medical approaches were not entirely scientific by modern standards, some doctors began following more observational methods in their practice. Rather than relying solely on ancient texts, these physicians made genuine efforts to understand what was actually wrong with their patients through direct examination.
Some doctors started taking their patients' pulse and examining their urine as diagnostic tools, moving beyond purely theoretical approaches. Battlefield surgeons, working in practical emergency situations, began adopting more hands-on, scientific approaches to treating injuries and wounds.
Despite these observational advances, medical education still primarily focused on reading and memorising the works of ancient authorities like Hippocrates and Galen, rather than encouraging hands-on experimentation or direct observation of patients. This tension between old and new approaches would continue for centuries.
Timeline of key developments
- c.1000-1200: Mediaeval doctors continue relying primarily on ancient Greek theories
- c.1200-1300: First medical universities established in Bologna and other Italian cities
- 1403: Medical school at Padua conducting anatomy lectures with dissection demonstrations
- c.1300-1500: Gradual introduction of medical licensing and improved textbooks
Key Points to Remember:
- Mediaeval doctors relied heavily on ancient Greek theories from Hippocrates and Galen, particularly the Theory of Four Humours and Theory of Opposites
- Treatment methods included portable diagnosis books (vademecum), leeches for bloodletting, posies to ward off miasma, herbal remedies, and zodiac charts for timing treatments
- New medical universities were established in Bologna, Padua and other cities, introducing formal medical training with practical experience and early dissection studies
- Some doctors began adopting more observational approaches, taking pulses and examining urine, while battlefield surgeons developed more practical surgical techniques
- Despite these advances, supernatural explanations for disease remained common and most medical practice was still based on unquestioned acceptance of ancient authorities