A Snapshot of the US Presidency from 1945-89: Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson (Leaving Cert History): Revision Notes

A Snapshot of the US Presidency from 1945-89: Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson

John F. Kennedy (JFK) - Democrat

John F. Kennedy, often known as JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. His presidency is remembered for its inspirational vision and significant events.

It should be noted that Kennedy came into office at a time of great difficulty. He was immediately met with issues with the USSR, but he was elected on the basis that he was showing a very strong stance against the Soviets in his election campaigns.

His first standoff as leader was to do with the flood of immigrants moving from East to West Berlin, one that was solved by the building of the Berlin Wall, a monument that symbolised tensions between the US and USSR for nearly three decades. In any case, below is a brief snapshot of some of his most telling domestic and foreign policy contributions.

Foreign Contributions

1. In 1962, Kennedy faced a major confrontation with the Soviet Union when it was discovered that Soviet missiles were being installed in Cuba. Kennedy's firm stance and negotiations led to the removal of the missiles, avoiding a potential nuclear war.
2. Kennedy inspired the nation with his goal to land an American on the moon by the end of the 1960s. His commitment to space exploration led to increased funding for NASA and the eventual moon landing in 1969.
3. Kennedy established the Peace Corps in 1961, sending American volunteers to help with development projects in poorer countries. This programme aimed to promote peace and friendship worldwide.

Domestic Contributions

1. Kennedy supported civil rights for African Americans. He proposed the Civil Rights Act to end segregation and discrimination, though it was passed after his death.
2. His New Frontier programmes aimed to improve the economy, education, healthcare, and civil rights. He pushed for advancements in social welfare and public service.
3. Kennedy introduced tax cuts to stimulate economic growth and worked to reduce unemployment, boosting the economy during his presidency.

Focus on: Lyndon Baines Johnson (1909–1973) - Democrat

Lyndon Baines Johnson was born in Texas in 1909. He started his political career as a Democratic congressman in 1936 and became a senator in 1948. By 1955, he was the Leader of the Senate, which meant he decided which bills would be voted on and which senators would serve on which committees. He ran for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1960 but lost to John F. Kennedy. He agreed to be Kennedy's vice president and helped Kennedy win Texas, which helped Kennedy become president. Johnson took over as president after Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963. His presidency is viewed with mixed feelings; some see him as great, while others see him as a disaster.

Foreign Policy

Johnson's foreign policy was mainly about the Vietnam War. He inherited the US involvement in the war but made it much bigger in early 1964. He claimed that an attack on the US Navy by North Vietnamese forces in the Gulf of Tonkin meant that Congress should give him more power to deal with the situation. With this authority, he sent US troops to fight the communist forces directly. Over the next four years, the US Army couldn't defeat the enemy in the jungles of Vietnam. The US Air Force also dropped many bombs on North Vietnam, but the war became more costly and unpopular. By 1968, after the Tet Offensive, many Americans felt that the war couldn't be won. Johnson became so unpopular that he decided not to run for re-election in 1968.

Domestic Policy: The Great Society

Johnson was very effective at getting domestic policies passed. He called his set of policies the "Great Society," which aimed to improve the US significantly. He was very persuasive with senators and congressmen, often convincing and even pressuring them to vote for his legislation. His landslide victory in the 1964 presidential election helped him a lot. He won 60% of the vote and brought many new liberal Democrats into Congress, which gave him the support he needed to pass his policies.

The War on Poverty

Johnson believed that the government should work to end poverty in the US. He started the "war on poverty," which included several important programmes:

• Medicare: Free healthcare for all Americans over 65.
• Medicaid: Free healthcare for the poorest Americans.
• Food Stamps: Assistance for poor people to buy food.
• Housing: He provided schemes to clear slums in cities and provided aid to renters + cheap housing.
• Education: $8 billion in federal funding was pumped into schools at both primary and post primary levels.

Civil Rights

One of Johnson's biggest impacts was on civil rights for African Americans. After President Kennedy's death, Johnson argued that passing civil rights laws would be a great tribute to him. The Civil Rights Movement, led by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., had been pushing for these changes for years. Under Johnson:

• Civil Rights Act of 1964: This law banned discrimination based on race, age, sex, or religion in public places like housing, restaurants, hospitals, and schools. It gave the federal government the power to enforce this at the local level.
• Voting Rights Act of 1965: This law banned strategies used by Southern states to stop African Americans from voting.
• Affirmative Action: Ensured that companies working for the federal government gave a percentage of jobs to minorities.
• First African American Supreme Court Justice: Thurgood Marshall was appointed.

Power of the Presidency

Johnson's Great Society programmes expanded the role and power of the federal government, increasing the power of the presidency. He used the power given in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution to run the Vietnam War without much supervision from Congress. Johnson made the presidency a central part of Washington's power by carefully managing Congress. He retired to Texas after leaving office in 1969 and died of a heart attack in 1973.

Was LBJ a Successful President?

YES His Civil Rights Legislation was a great positive: • Civil Rights Act of 1964: LBJ signed this landmark law that ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin. This was a significant step towards racial equality in America. • Voting Rights Act of 1965: This law banned racial discrimination in voting, making it easier for African Americans to vote. It targeted practices like literacy tests and other barriers that had been used to prevent black citizens from voting. He had a variety of programmes within his 'Great Society' • Medicare and Medicaid: These programmes, established under LBJ's administration, provided healthcare to millions of elderly and low-income Americans. Medicare offers health insurance for people over 65, while Medicaid assists low-income families and individuals. • War on Poverty: LBJ launched various programmes to reduce poverty, including Head Start (which provides early childhood education to low-income children) and Job Corps (which offers free education and job training for young people). Economic Improvements: • Economic Opportunity Act: This act aimed to eliminate poverty by creating job training programmes and providing loans to small businesses. It was a cornerstone of LBJ's War on Poverty. • Stable Economy: Under LBJ, the economy grew steadily, and unemployment rates were low. His policies helped sustain economic growth and stability during his presidency. Educational Initiatives: • Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965: This act provided significant federal funding to public schools, particularly those in low-income areas. It aimed to improve educational opportunities for all children, regardless of their socio-economic status. • Higher Education Act of 1965: This law increased federal funding for universities and provided financial assistance to college students, making higher education more accessible to many Americans. Environmental Reforms: • Clean Air Act: Johnson's administration strengthened this act to reduce air pollution and protect public health. It set emission standards for industries and automobiles. • Wilderness Act of 1964: This law protected millions of acres of wilderness areas from development, preserving natural landscapes for future generations.

NO Vietnam War Escalation: • Increased U.S. Involvement: LBJ significantly escalated the Vietnam War, sending hundreds of thousands of American troops into combat. This decision led to a long, costly, and unpopular conflict. • Public Opposition: The war sparked massive protests and widespread opposition at home. Many Americans became disillusioned with the government's handling of the war, leading to a deep national divide. Credibility Gap: • Misinformation and Distrust: There was a significant gap between what the Johnson administration reported about the war and what was actually happening. This "credibility gap" eroded public trust in LBJ and the government. • Tet Offensive: The 1968 Tet Offensive, a major surprise attack by North Vietnamese forces, contradicted official claims that the U.S. was winning the war. This further damaged LBJ's credibility. Economic Problems: • Inflation and Budget Deficits: Johnson's Great Society programmes, combined with the high costs of the Vietnam War, led to increased government spending. This contributed to inflation and growing budget deficits. • Economic Strain: The strain on the economy caused by these expenses became a significant issue, complicating efforts to sustain his social programmes. Civil Unrest: • Urban Riots: During LBJ's presidency, major cities like Los Angeles (Watts Riot in 1965), Detroit, and Newark experienced significant riots. These riots highlighted racial tensions and economic inequalities that his administration struggled to address fully. • Social Division: The civil unrest and riots were a sign of deep social divisions in the country, indicating that not all Americans felt the benefits of his policies. Political Unpopularity: • Declining Approval Ratings: Due to the prolonged conflict in Vietnam and domestic issues like civil unrest, Johnson's popularity plummeted. By the end of his presidency, he faced considerable public and political opposition. • Decision Not to Seek Re-election: In 1968, facing overwhelming opposition and a fractured nation, LBJ announced that he would not seek re-election. This decision was seen as an acknowledgement of his political struggles and declining support.