Lexical Change (AQA A-Level English Language): Revision Notes
Lexical change
What is lexical change?
Lexical change describes how the vocabulary, or lexicon, of a language evolves and transforms over time. This is a natural and ongoing process that reflects how languages adapt to new contexts, technologies, cultural shifts, and contact with other languages. Understanding lexical change helps us appreciate why English has such a rich and varied vocabulary, and how words we use today may have completely different origins or meanings from the past.
The English language has been particularly dynamic in its lexical development. Unlike languages with strict regulatory bodies, English has freely absorbed and adapted words from countless sources, making it one of the most lexically diverse languages in the world.
The English language, in particular, has undergone significant lexical change throughout its history due to invasions, trade, colonisation, and cultural exchange. As a result, English contains words from numerous language sources including Latin, French, Norse, Hindi, and many others.
Types of lexical change
There are several distinct processes through which lexical change occurs. Each type represents a different mechanism by which new words enter the language or existing words transform.
Borrowing
Borrowing happens when a language adopts words directly from another language. This is one of the most common forms of lexical change, especially in English, which has historically been influenced by many different languages.
English has borrowed extensively throughout its development. For example:
- Pyjama comes from Hindi
- Ballet comes from French
- Pizza comes from Italian
- Kindergarten comes from German
These borrowed words, also called loanwords, often retain their original pronunciation or spelling patterns, which is why English spelling can seem irregular. Borrowing typically occurs when speakers need to describe new concepts, objects, or practices introduced through cultural contact.
Why does English borrow so much?
English has been uniquely positioned historically to absorb vocabulary from other languages. The Norman Conquest brought thousands of French words, the Renaissance introduced Latin and Greek terms, and the British Empire's global reach exposed English speakers to languages worldwide. This openness to borrowing has enriched English vocabulary immensely.
Loan translation
Loan translation, also known as a calque, involves the direct translation of individual elements of a word or phrase from one language to create a new term in another language. Rather than borrowing the word itself, the meaning is transferred through translation.
Worked Example: Skyscraper
The word skyscraper was translated from the French term 'gratte-ciel':
- French: gratte-ciel
- 'gratte' = scratch
- 'ciel' = sky
- English translation: sky + scraper = skyscraper
Each component of the French phrase was translated into English to form a new compound word.
Other examples include:
- Goalkeeper (from German 'Torwart')
- Flea market (from French 'marché aux puces')
This process allows languages to expand their vocabulary whilst maintaining their own linguistic structure and sound patterns.
Semantic shift
Semantic shift occurs when words develop different meanings over time whilst keeping the same form. This is a gradual process that reflects changing social attitudes, contexts, or uses of particular words.
Worked Example: The Evolution of "Nice"
The word nice has undergone a dramatic semantic shift:
- Middle English: meant 'stupid' or 'foolish'
- Modern English: means 'pleasant' or 'agreeable'
This represents a complete reversal in meaning, transforming from a negative term to a positive one through centuries of use.
Other examples of semantic shift include:
- Gay once simply meant 'happy' but now primarily refers to homosexuality
- Awful originally meant 'inspiring awe' but now means 'very bad'
- Silly used to mean 'blessed' but now means 'foolish'
Semantic shifts can involve three main types of meaning change:
- Amelioration – improvement in meaning (e.g., 'nice')
- Pejoration – deterioration in meaning (e.g., 'awful')
- Shift to different semantic field – movement to a completely different area of meaning (e.g., 'gay')
Coinage
Coinage refers to the creation of entirely new words. These words are invented rather than derived from existing words or borrowed from other languages.
Brand names frequently become coinages through a process called generification or proprietary eponym. For instance, hoover was originally a brand name for a vacuum cleaner but has become a synonym for 'vacuum cleaner' itself, even used as a verb ('to hoover').
Other examples include:
- Xerox (to photocopy)
- Google (to search online)
- Kleenex (tissue)
When brand names become generic terms, companies sometimes lose their trademark protection. This is why some brands actively resist this process through advertising campaigns that emphasize their products as brand names rather than generic terms.
Coinages can also be completely invented words like nylon or kodak, which were created specifically as brand names without reference to existing words.
Compounding
Compounding happens when two existing words are combined to create a new word with its own distinct meaning. This is a highly productive word formation process, particularly in Germanic languages like English.
Examples of Compounding:
- Firefly (fire + fly) – a bioluminescent insect
- Bluebird (blue + bird) – a specific type of bird
- Blackboard (black + board) – a writing surface for classrooms
- Butterfly (butter + fly) – an insect (meaning not predictable from parts)
Compound words can be written as one word (closed compounds), hyphenated (hyphenated compounds), or as two separate words (open compounds). The meaning of a compound is not always predictable from its individual parts – a butterfly, for instance, has nothing to do with butter.
Clipping
Clipping involves the shortening of a word, typically by removing one or more syllables. This process often occurs in informal speech and reflects a tendency towards economy of expression.
The word advertisement becomes ad or advert through clipping. Other common examples include:
- Phone (from telephone)
- Lab (from laboratory)
- Exam (from examination)
- Photo (from photograph)
Clipped forms often eventually become the standard or preferred form in everyday language, though the full form may still be used in formal contexts. This demonstrates how informal linguistic innovations can become established in the language over time.
Conversion
Conversion, also known as zero derivation, occurs when a word changes its grammatical category without any alteration to its spelling or addition of affixes. The word simply shifts function within a sentence.
Worked Example: Conversion of "Run"
The word run can function as different word classes:
- As a verb: 'I run every morning'
- As a noun: 'I went for a run'
No spelling change or suffix has been added – the word has simply converted from one word class to another.
Other examples include:
- Email (noun to verb: 'I'll email you')
- Google (noun to verb: 'Just google it')
- Text (noun to verb: 'I'll text you later')
This is a very common and productive process in modern English, particularly with technology-related vocabulary.
Blending
Blending happens when parts of two existing words are combined to create a completely new word. Unlike compounding, where whole words are joined, blending takes fragments from each source word.
Worked Example: Creating "Brunch"
The word brunch blends two meal-related words:
- Breakfast (beginning portion)
- Lunch (ending portion)
- Result: Brunch (a meal between breakfast and lunch)
Other examples include:
- Smog (smoke + fog)
- Motel (motor + hotel)
- Podcast (iPod + broadcast)
- Edutainment (education + entertainment)
Blends are often informal or playful in origin but can become established parts of the lexicon over time.
Affixation
Affixation involves adding prefixes (at the beginning) or suffixes (at the end) to existing words to create new words or modify meanings.
For instance, do becomes redo after adding the prefix 're-'. This is one of the most systematic and productive word formation processes in English.
Examples of prefixation:
- Un- (unhappy, undo)
- Pre- (preview, prehistoric)
- Dis- (disappear, disconnect)
Examples of suffixation:
- -ness (happiness, darkness)
- -er (teacher, runner)
- -tion (creation, action)
Affixation allows speakers to create new words systematically and predictably, making it a key mechanism for lexical expansion. Unlike some other processes, affixation follows recognizable patterns that native speakers can apply productively to create words they've never heard before.
Exam tips
Essential Exam Strategies:
- When identifying lexical change in texts, look for neologisms (newly created words) and consider which process created them
- Pay attention to dated vocabulary that may reveal when a text was written
- Consider the social and cultural context that drives lexical change
- Be able to explain why a particular type of lexical change occurred, not just identify it
- Remember that multiple processes can affect the same word over time
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Lexical change describes how a language's vocabulary evolves over time through various processes
- There are nine main types of lexical change: borrowing, loan translation, semantic shift, coinage, compounding, clipping, conversion, blending, and affixation
- Borrowing and loan translation involve taking words or meanings from other languages
- Semantic shift changes word meanings whilst keeping the same form
- Word formation processes like compounding, blending, clipping, and affixation create new words from existing elements
- Understanding these processes helps explain the diversity and richness of the English lexicon