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10 cards from this deck
Compare observed vs expected data for significance
χ²
Actual measurements collected during fieldwork
Theoretical values predicted by theory
No significant difference; pattern due to chance
χ² = Σ(O-E)²/E
(n-1) where n = number of categories
95% confident pattern is real, 5% chance
If calculated χ² ≥ critical value
5 observations
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