MPs, Peers, and the Opposition (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes
MPs, Peers, and the Opposition
The roles and influence of MPs
Backbench MPs are MPs who do not hold government or shadow cabinet positions. They sit on the back benches of the House of Commons and play a crucial role in scrutinising government, representing constituents, and influencing policy.
The term "backbench" literally refers to the physical seating arrangement in the House of Commons. Government ministers and shadow cabinet members sit on the front benches, while other MPs sit behind them on the back benches.
A typical day for a backbench MP
To understand what MPs actually do, it helps to look at a typical working day. A backbench opposition MP's Tuesday might include:
- Parliamentary debates: Speaking in Westminster Hall debates and urgent debates in the main chamber on issues like children's services and learning disabilities
- Committee work: Attending select committee evidence sessions (such as the International Development Select Committee)
- Constituency matters: Discussing urgent issues with constituency office staff by phone
- Media engagement: Being interviewed by journalists about policy areas they specialise in
- All-Party Parliamentary Groups: Attending meetings focused on specific policy areas like children's welfare
- Meeting stakeholders: Discussing legislation and policy with charity representatives and other interest groups
- Party meetings: Meeting with fellow MPs to discuss campaign tactics and leadership performance
- Whip consultations: Explaining plans to rebel against the party line on upcoming votes
- Administrative work: Coordinating with Westminster office staff and preparing speeches
- Networking: Attending dinner with colleagues to discuss political strategy
- Research: Collecting research findings and writing speeches for future debates
This schedule demonstrates that MPs have varied responsibilities beyond simply voting in the Commons. The work is long and demanding, often extending late into the evening.
This diverse workload explains why MPs often work 60-70 hour weeks during parliamentary sitting periods. The combination of Westminster responsibilities, constituency work, and media engagement leaves little time for personal life during the parliamentary term.
How MPs influence policy and represent voters
MPs have several mechanisms through which they can influence government policy and represent their constituents:
Legislative activities:
- Voting on legislation: MPs can support or oppose government bills, and occasionally rebel against their party line
- Proposing legislation: Through Private Members' Bills (PMBs), individual MPs can introduce their own legislation, though these rarely succeed without government support
Private Members' Bills have a low success rate, but some notable examples have succeeded. The Abortion Act 1967 and the Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act 1965 both began as Private Members' Bills. Success usually requires government support or at least government neutrality on the issue.
Parliamentary participation:
- Speaking in debates: MPs can contribute to debates on various topics, raising issues important to their constituents or policy areas they care about
- Asking questions: MPs can ask oral or written questions of ministers, holding them to account for their decisions and actions
- Informal lobbying: MPs often have informal conversations with ministers about issues affecting their constituents or policy concerns
Committee and group work:
- Serving on committees: MPs can join select committees or public bill committees to scrutinise legislation and government departments
- Joining all-party groups: These informal cross-party groups focus on specific issues or countries, allowing MPs to develop expertise and influence in particular areas
The significance of these opportunities varies considerably. Speaking in debates and asking questions provides visibility but may not directly change policy. Committee work can be more influential, particularly through select committee reports that recommend changes to government policy. Voting and rebellions are most significant when the government has a small majority, as even a few rebels can defeat legislation.
The role and significance of the opposition in parliament
Opposition in parliament is essential for democratic accountability. The opposition scrutinises government actions, proposes alternative policies, and offers voters a choice at elections.
Types of opposition in parliament
There are four main types of opposition:
The Official Opposition: Since the 1920s, this has been either the Labour or Conservative Party (whichever is not in government). The Official Opposition receives special privileges and funding to help it effectively scrutinise the government.
Other opposition parties: Smaller parties such as the Liberal Democrats, Scottish National Party (SNP), and Plaid Cymru also oppose the government, though with fewer resources and privileges than the Official Opposition.
Intra-party opposition: MPs within the governing party who disagree with certain policies can act as an internal opposition. These backbench rebels can be particularly effective when they vote against their own government.
Inter-party opposition: During coalition governments (such as 2010–15), disagreements between coalition partners can create another form of opposition. For example, Liberal Democrats sometimes opposed Conservative policies during the coalition.
The fundamental purpose of opposition
Opposition parties must fulfil two main functions:
Scrutiny and checks: The opposition examines government policies, questions ministers, and highlights potential problems or failures. This scrutiny helps ensure the government is held accountable for its decisions.
Proposing alternatives: Opposition parties cannot simply criticise; they must offer viable alternative policies. For instance, if they advocate increased public spending, they must explain how it would be funded through taxation or spending cuts elsewhere. During Brexit debates, those opposing a no-deal Brexit had to propose realistic alternatives, such as remaining in the customs union or holding a second referendum.
The Official Opposition particularly must present itself as a government-in-waiting, demonstrating that it is ready to take power. This is achieved through the shadow cabinet, where opposition spokespeople shadow their government counterparts and develop alternative policies.
How the opposition challenges the government
The opposition has several mechanisms to challenge the government:
Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs): The leader of the Official Opposition has special privileges, asking the opening question and up to five follow-up questions. They are the only MP allowed to respond directly to the prime minister with further questions, giving them significant visibility.
Opposition Days: Parliament sets aside 20 opposition days each year when opposition parties choose the debate topic. The Official Opposition receives 17 of these days, with the remaining three going to the second-largest opposition party. These debates allow the opposition to raise issues they want to publicise and expose government failures.
Case Study: Labour's Opposition Days in 2018
Labour used their opposition days strategically to highlight issues they believed exposed government failures:
- School funding crises affecting education quality
- The Grenfell Tower fire response and building safety regulations
- NHS privatisation and healthcare funding concerns
While these debates raised public awareness, they did not directly force policy changes, illustrating both the power and limitations of opposition days.
While votes on opposition day motions are not binding on the government, they can have real impact.
Case Study: The Gurkhas Settlement Vote (2009)
In 2009, an opposition motion to allow Gurkhas (Nepalese soldiers serving in the British Army) to settle in the UK passed when 27 Labour MPs rebelled against their own government.
The outcome:
- The vote created significant political pressure on the government
- Although not legally required to change policy, the government did so
- This demonstrates how opposition motions can achieve real policy change through political pressure, even without legal force
Key lesson: Opposition effectiveness increases dramatically when combined with government backbench rebellions.
Shadow Cabinet questions: Shadow ministers can question their government counterparts and propose alternative policies. For example, Labour's shadow transport ministers argued for railway renationalisation and ending the rail franchising system.
Select committees: These cross-party committees often produce critical reports on government policies and their implementation, providing detailed scrutiny.
Coalition and internal opposition: During the 2010–15 coalition, Liberal Democrat opposition meant Conservatives dropped proposals to lower inheritance tax. Similarly, during 2018–19 Brexit debates, opposition MPs and Conservative rebels repeatedly defeated Theresa May's withdrawal agreement, though they could not agree on alternatives.
The significance and effectiveness of opposition
The effectiveness of parliamentary opposition depends on several factors:
Parliamentary arithmetic: The size of the government's majority is crucial. When the government has a small or non-existent majority (as with Theresa May's 2017–19 government), the opposition becomes much more powerful. There is a greater chance of defeating the government on legislative proposals. A strong opposition performance at the previous election, resulting in many opposition MPs, also enhances their effectiveness.
Context and circumstances: During national emergencies, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, opposition parties must balance criticism with national unity. They need to be seen as largely supportive when unity is the priority, though even during crises, the existence of opposition influences government decisions. The government's multibillion-pound job and wage protection scheme during COVID-19 may have been partly influenced by awareness of potential political backlash if the response appeared inadequate.
Quality of shadow cabinet: Much depends on how well shadow ministers perform in debates and media appearances. Poor performances can undermine the opposition's credibility.
Case Study: Shadow Home Secretary Media Appearance (2017)
When shadow home secretary Diane Abbott appeared on LBC radio in 2017, her weak grasp of police funding details became a widely reported issue:
- She struggled to provide accurate figures for Labour's police recruitment plans
- The incident was extensively covered by media outlets
- It damaged Labour's credibility on policing policy during the election campaign
Impact: This illustrates how individual shadow cabinet performances can significantly affect overall opposition credibility and electoral prospects.
Strengths and weaknesses of the opposition
Strengths:
The Official Opposition receives additional funding and parliamentary privileges. It receives Short money to assist with policy research, helping it develop credible alternative policies. The opposition can position itself as an alternative government, presenting its policies to voters as a viable option at the next election.
On some occasions, the opposition successfully checks or changes government policy. The 2009 Gurkhas settlement and some aspects of Brexit legislation demonstrate this. Backbench rebels from the governing party can create serious problems for the government. In 2012, Conservative backbench rebels effectively blocked a bill to reform the House of Lords, showing how internal opposition can be powerful.
Weaknesses:
The government possesses far greater resources, including:
- Control of parliamentary business and the ability to choose debate topics
- Research resources of the Cabinet Office and special advisers
- The full machinery of the civil service
- Greater media access and visibility
This gives the government a significant structural advantage over the opposition in developing and defending policies.
The effectiveness of the shadow cabinet varies considerably. Poor performances in debates or media appearances can undermine the opposition's credibility and electoral prospects.
Opposition successes are relatively rare. Most of the time, the government can pass its legislation through parliament without major obstacles, especially with a comfortable majority. Successful rebellions on major issues are uncommon. Internal opposition from government backbenchers usually only works when supported by opposition parties as well; otherwise, the government's will typically prevail.
The balance of opposition
For parliamentary democracy to function effectively, there must be what can be called an equilibrium of legitimacy. Both government and opposition must accept each other's legitimacy and role. The opposition should not seek to completely veto or block all policies of the democratically elected government. Equally, the government must allow the opposition regular and open opportunities to critique policies and suggest alternatives.
A healthy opposition sustains democracy by scrutinising government without acting as a complete roadblock to governance.
As Lord Norton argued, "Good government needs an effective opposition." Better opposition may contribute to better government by keeping the government accountable and alert to potential problems. This principle recognises that opposition is not merely obstructive but plays a constructive role in improving governance.
The interactions of parliament and other branches of government
The relationship between parliament and government is complex and unique to the British constitutional system.
Fusion of powers
Unlike countries with strict separation of powers (like the United States), the UK operates under a fusion of powers. This means the executive is formed from and remains part of the legislature. The prime minister and cabinet are all MPs or peers, sitting in parliament while also running the government.
This creates an unusual situation where parliament must both support the government (as the governing party's MPs form the government) and scrutinise it (as parliament's constitutional role requires). This dual role creates inherent tension in the British parliamentary system.
Executive dominance
Power in the UK is concentrated in one chamber, the House of Commons, making the relationship between government and the Commons the most important. Under normal circumstances, the executive dominates the legislature. The government, with its party majority, usually controls parliament and can pass its legislative programme.
This executive dominance exists because:
- The government controls parliamentary business and the legislative timetable
- Party discipline usually ensures government MPs vote with their party
- The government has greater resources, including the civil service and special advisers
- The prime minister can threaten MPs with deselection or loss of promotion opportunities
Parliamentary power in exceptional circumstances
However, in exceptional circumstances, parliament can be a powerful player:
- Hung parliaments: When no party has an overall majority, parliament gains power as the government must negotiate and compromise to pass legislation
- Small majorities: Even slim majorities give parliament more influence, as just a few rebels can defeat government proposals
- Deeply divided governing parties: When the governing party is split on major issues (as with Brexit 2016–19), parliament can assert itself effectively
These exceptional circumstances demonstrate that while executive dominance is the norm, it is not absolute. Parliamentary sovereignty ultimately means parliament retains the power to challenge and even bring down a government through a vote of no confidence.
Key Points to Remember:
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Backbench MPs have varied roles including constituency work, committee membership, debates, questioning ministers, and occasionally rebelling against their party
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Opposition comes in four forms: Official Opposition, other opposition parties, intra-party rebels, and inter-party tensions during coalition government
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The Official Opposition acts as a government-in-waiting with special privileges including Short money, priority at PMQs, and 17 opposition days per year
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Opposition effectiveness depends heavily on parliamentary arithmetic—small government majorities give opposition more power to defeat legislation
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The UK operates fusion of powers, meaning the executive is formed from parliament, but under normal circumstances the executive dominates the legislature