UK Referendums (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes

UK Referendums

Introduction to referendums in the UK

Referendums have not traditionally been a part of British political life. The postwar Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee famously expressed his opposition to them, stating:

I could not consent to the introduction into our national life of a device so alien to all our traditions as the referendum which has only too often been the instrument of Nazism and fascism.

Attlee was reflecting on historical examples such as the 1938 referendum on Anschluss (the unification of Germany and Austria), where propaganda and nationalist fervour resulted in over 99% support for Austria joining Hitler's Third Reich. Whilst such extreme manipulation is rare in modern democracies, Attlee's point remains relevant: referendums are not deeply rooted in UK constitutional tradition.

The British political system is fundamentally based on representative democracy rather than direct democracy. In a representative system, citizens elect MPs to make decisions on their behalf, rather than voting directly on individual policy matters. This reflects the principle that elected representatives have the time, expertise, and information to make informed decisions on complex issues.

Key terms:

• Suffrage: The right to vote. Universal suffrage effectively equates to democracy, ensuring all adult citizens can participate in elections.
• Representative democracy: A system in which people vote for elected representatives who then make decisions on their behalf, such as MPs in general elections or councillors in local elections.

National referendums in the UK

Despite the UK's constitutional preference for representative democracy, there have been three nationwide referendums since 1975, all focusing on major constitutional questions.

The 1975 European Community referendum

The first UK-wide referendum asked voters: "Do you think the United Kingdom should stay in the European Community (the Common Market)?" This vote occurred after the UK had joined the EEC in 1973, and was called by Harold Wilson's Labour government to resolve internal party divisions over Europe. The result was decisive, with 67.23% voting to remain and 32.77% voting to leave.

The 2011 Alternative Vote referendum

This referendum asked whether the UK should replace the First Past the Post electoral system with the Alternative Vote system for electing MPs to the House of Commons. The vote was a condition of the 2010 Coalition Agreement between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats, with the Lib Dems demanding an opportunity to change the electoral system. The proposal was overwhelmingly rejected, with 67.90% voting against AV and only 32.10% in favour.

The 2016 EU referendum (Brexit)

The most consequential referendum in UK history asked: "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?" The result was narrow but clear, with 51.89% voting to Leave and 48.11% voting to Remain. This referendum has generated ongoing debate about the nature of the mandate given by such a close result, and whether the complexity of EU withdrawal could adequately be captured in a simple yes/no question.

Regional and local referendums

In addition to national votes, the UK has held numerous regional referendums, predominantly on devolution and constitutional arrangements within different parts of the country.

Early constitutional referendums (1973-1997)

The 1973 Northern Ireland border poll asked whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the UK or join the Irish Republic. The result was overwhelming (98.90% to remain), though the vote was boycotted by most nationalists, limiting its legitimacy.

The 1979 devolution referendums in Scotland and Wales demonstrated the complexity of referendum thresholds. In Scotland, a slim majority (51.6%) voted in favour of devolution, but the result was not implemented because turnout failed to reach the required threshold of 40% of all eligible voters supporting the proposal. In Wales, devolution was decisively rejected, with 79.74% voting against.

Following Labour's 1997 election victory, new devolution referendums were held in both Scotland and Wales. This time, Scotland voted strongly in favour (74.29% yes), whilst Wales narrowly approved devolution by the slimmest of margins—just 50.30% to 49.70%.

Later constitutional votes (1998-2014)

The 1998 Good Friday Agreement referendum was held simultaneously in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. In Northern Ireland, 71.12% supported the agreement, whilst in the Republic, support reached 94.39%. This dual referendum was constitutionally significant, giving legitimacy to the peace process on both sides of the border.

The 1998 London referendum approved the creation of a directly elected mayor and Greater London Authority with 72.01% support, though turnout was only 34%.

The 2004 Northeast England devolution referendum demonstrated that not all regions desired devolution, with 77.93% rejecting proposals for a regional assembly.

In 2011, Wales held a referendum on extending the powers of the Welsh Assembly, allowing it to make laws in its 20 areas of competence without seeking Westminster approval. This passed with 63.49% support.

The 2014 Scottish independence referendum asked "Should Scotland be an independent country?" and generated enormous public engagement, with turnout reaching 84.6%. The result was a clear victory for remaining in the UK, with 55.30% voting No and 44.70% voting Yes. However, the Scottish National Party has since argued that Brexit has fundamentally changed the circumstances, justifying a second independence referendum.

Characteristics of UK referendums

Several patterns emerge from examining UK referendums. They are exclusively focused on constitutional issues involving sovereignty, devolution, or fundamental changes to the political system. Unlike countries such as Ireland or some US states, the UK has never held referendums on ethical or moral questions like abortion or same-sex marriage—these remain matters for parliamentary decision.

Referendums in the UK typically occur for one of two reasons. Either the government believes it will win the vote and wants to gain legitimacy for a controversial policy, or they result from political deals between parties. The 2011 AV referendum exemplifies the latter, being a direct consequence of Liberal Democrat demands during coalition negotiations.

Importantly, UK voters cannot initiate referendums themselves. There is no mechanism for petitions or direct action to trigger a national vote, unlike ballot initiatives in many US states. All referendums are called at the discretion of Parliament.

Advantages of referendums

Supporters of referendums argue they offer several democratic benefits that strengthen political engagement and accountability.

Enhanced political participation

Referendum campaigns can engage voters in focused political debate on specific issues, often attracting groups who are less politically active during general elections. The Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum achieved 81% turnout, whilst the Scottish independence referendum reached an impressive 84.6%. Even the Brexit referendum, despite criticisms, saw higher engagement among younger voters than typical general elections.

Direct democratic legitimacy

Referendums provide a direct link between policy-making and the national will. Rather than voting for representatives who then make decisions on a range of issues, citizens can express their view on a specific question. This represents what some call a "purer" form of democracy, particularly on constitutional questions that affect the fundamental nature of the state.

Managing party divisions

Referendums can absorb divisions within political parties that cannot be resolved through general elections. For example, both major parties have experienced deep splits over European integration. A referendum allows voters to express their view on the specific issue whilst still supporting their preferred party on other matters, enabling them to "fine tune" their policy preferences.

Checking government power

Between general elections, the UK's parliamentary system typically gives vast power to the executive, particularly when the government has a strong majority. Governments are often elected by only a minority of the electorate under First Past the Post. Referendums can provide a necessary check on this concentrated power, ensuring major constitutional changes have explicit popular consent.

Settling controversial issues

Referendums can settle controversial arguments in a more final manner than a parliamentary vote, which could subsequently be overturned by a future parliament. The principle of parliamentary sovereignty means no parliament can bind its successors, but referendums carry greater moral and political weight.

Disadvantages of referendums

Critics argue that referendums present significant problems for effective democratic governance and can undermine the UK's constitutional traditions.

Binary choices on complex issues

Referendums are often described as a "blunt instrument" because they reduce complex questions to a simple Yes/No choice. The Brexit referendum illustrates this problem perfectly. Those who voted Leave in 2016 may have supported anything from a "soft Brexit" maintaining close EU ties to a complete break with no formal agreement. The referendum could not differentiate between "Brexit Lite" and "Brexit Max", yet the government had to implement the result. Representative democracy, by contrast, allows elected MPs to debate and decide such refinements through parliamentary procedure.

Undermining representative democracy

Referendums can weaken the principle of representative government. The British system assumes that MPs have the time, expertise, and access to information necessary to make informed decisions on complex matters. When referendums override parliamentary judgement, this expertise is sidelined in favour of direct popular voting on issues that may not be well understood by the general public.

Complexity and voter understanding

Many constitutional and policy issues are extremely complicated and may not be easily grasped by a majority of voters. Rather than making informed decisions based on balanced arguments, some voters may be swayed by simplistic or misleading campaign propaganda. During the Brexit campaign, many Remain supporters accused the Leave campaign of misleading voters by promising an additional £350 million per week to the NHS using funds currently sent to the EU—a figure that was widely disputed but featured prominently on campaign materials.

Divisiveness and social tension

The political debate generated by referendums can be bitter and divisive, potentially damaging social cohesion. This was particularly evident during both the Brexit and Scottish independence campaigns, where families and communities were split along referendum lines. The intensity of such campaigns can create lasting resentment and division.

Failure to settle issues permanently

Controversial issues are not always decided "once and for all" by a single referendum. Following Brexit, many campaigned for a second referendum on the final deal negotiated with the EU. Similarly, the SNP has demanded a second Scottish independence referendum, arguing that Brexit fundamentally changed the circumstances under which the 2014 vote was held.

Variable turnout

Whilst some referendums achieve impressive turnout, others struggle to engage voters. The 2011 AV referendum achieved only 42% turnout, whilst the vote on creating the London mayor and Greater London Authority attracted just 34% participation. Low turnout raises questions about whether such votes truly represent the national will.

The "tyranny of the majority"

The Brexit vote highlighted concerns about the "tyranny of the majority". Was there a clear mandate for such a dramatic constitutional change when only 51.9% of voters supported it? Moreover, the long-term consequences of Brexit will be disproportionately felt by younger voters, who were least likely to vote Leave. This raises questions about whether a simple majority is sufficient for irreversible constitutional changes.

Exam guidance

When answering questions about UK referendums, ensure you can:

• Compare and contrast the three national referendums, identifying patterns and differences in their use
• Evaluate both advantages and disadvantages with specific examples from real referendums
• Use statistics effectively, such as the high turnout figures for the Scottish independence vote (84.6%) or Good Friday Agreement (81%)
• Reference specific controversies, such as the £350 million NHS claim during the Brexit campaign
• Discuss constitutional implications, particularly regarding parliamentary sovereignty and representative democracy
• Assess case studies in depth, especially Brexit and Scottish independence, as these demonstrate most clearly the complexities and controversies surrounding referendums

Remember that exam questions may ask you to reach a judgement about whether referendums strengthen or weaken UK democracy. Support your argument with detailed evidence and acknowledge counter-arguments before explaining why you find one position more convincing.

Remember!