Two-Party Domination (AQA A-Level Politics): Revision Notes

Two-Party Domination

Understanding two-party dominance in America

The United States has maintained a two-party dominant system since its earliest days, with Republicans and Democrats controlling virtually all elected offices. This pattern remains remarkably consistent despite occasional challenges from third parties and independent candidates.

Evidence of two-party dominance

The dominance of the two main parties is evident across multiple measures of political representation and electoral success.

Congressional representation shows almost no sustained third-party presence. Third parties and independents rarely maintain continuous representation in Congress or state legislatures. The two nominally independent senators serving in 2021, Angus King and Bernie Sanders, both caucus with the Democrats and face no serious electoral opposition from that party. Sanders even made two unsuccessful bids for the Democrat presidential nomination, demonstrating how independents often work within the two-party framework.

Presidential elections demonstrate even clearer two-party dominance. No third-party or independent candidate has directly won any Electoral College votes since George Wallace in 1968. The last significant independent presidential contender was Ross Perot in 1992, who secured approximately 19% of the popular vote but won no Electoral College votes. By 2020, the two-party share of the vote had reached 98%, leaving minimal electoral space for alternatives.

Third-party characteristics further explain their limited success. The two principal third parties in America, the Greens and Libertarians, are relatively recent creations. The Libertarians were founded in 1971, whilst the Greens can trace their history to the 1980s. Most third parties have short lifespans, as political scientist Richard Hofstadter observed:

Many third parties emerge around a single charismatic individual. The American Independent Party (AIP) essentially served as a political vehicle for segregationist ex-Democrat Alabama governor George Wallace. When Wallace returned to the Democrats, the AIP effectively disappeared.

Even high-profile independents typically maintain close associations with major parties. Michael Bloomberg was elected as Republican mayor of New York City, ran and won as independent in 2009 (facing no Republican opponent), but in 2019 spent millions contesting the Democrat presidential nomination rather than running independently. Similarly, Donald Trump chose to pursue the Republican nomination rather than run as an independent, despite being a billionaire with significant personal resources.

Why two-party dominance persists

Several structural and systemic factors reinforce two-party dominance in American politics.

Media access limitations severely restrict third-party visibility. Third parties and independents lack high-profile media presence and rarely participate in televised debates. They are often labelled as extremist or irrelevant, making it difficult to build name recognition and credibility with voters.

Financial barriers pose enormous challenges. Political campaigning in America costs vast sums of money. Third parties struggle to raise funds comparable to the major parties, limiting their ability to advertise, organise, and compete effectively.

Party flexibility within the two major parties reduces the electoral space for alternatives. Both Republicans and Democrats function as "big tent" coalitions, able to accommodate diverse viewpoints. The Democrats can contain self-proclaimed socialists and environmentalists, whilst the Republicans include staunch libertarians. This flexibility allows the main parties to absorb ideas and voters who might otherwise support third parties.

Restrictive ballot access laws in many states create additional obstacles. Third parties must often collect large numbers of signatures or meet other requirements to appear on ballots, whilst major party candidates automatically qualify.

The significance of third parties and independents

Despite their limited electoral success, third parties and independents are not entirely without significance. This remains a contested issue in American politics.

The "spoiler" effect represents the most direct third-party impact on elections. In close races, third parties can influence the final outcome by drawing votes away from major party candidates.

Congressional elections can occasionally be directly influenced by independent or third-party candidates. In Maine's 2nd District in 2018, the Republican winner in the first round failed to win the seat when eliminated independent candidates' second preference votes were redistributed under Maine's alternative voting system.

Policy influence provides perhaps the most significant third-party contribution. When third parties advocate policies that prove attractive to voters, these are often adopted by one or both main parties. Ross Perot's pledge for a balanced budget in 1992 influenced subsequent policy debates. More recently, the "Green New Deal" found favour with many progressive Democrats in 2018 and 2020, effectively taking support away from the Green Party by incorporating environmental concerns into mainstream Democratic politics.

However, arguments against third-party significance remain compelling:

• In most presidential elections, third-party and independent candidates fail to make any impact on the final outcome, as occurred in 2012 and 2016
• The prevalence of FPTP across the USA creates a structural barrier that makes third-party votes effectively wasted
• Third parties lack media presence and are rarely able to participate in televised debates, limiting their ability to reach voters

Case study: Third parties and the 2020 election

The 2020 election proved particularly difficult for third parties. Candidates from the two main parties captured 98% of the vote, leaving few electoral scraps for others.

The incremental role of third parties

Ralph Nader, who ran for president three times (in 2000, 2004 and 2008, twice for the Greens and once as independent), provided an illuminating perspective on third-party significance:

Nader's observation suggests the main significance of third-party and independent candidates lies in their incremental influence on the two main parties rather than direct electoral success. In a political system that allows independent political operators to run and win major party nominations, where parties remain partially "big tent", ballot access laws are often restrictive, a majoritarian electoral system prevails, and political campaigning costs enormous sums, third parties struggle even to have their voices heard, let alone their candidates elected.

This incremental influence operates by introducing new issues or perspectives into political debate, which major parties may subsequently adopt. Third parties serve as testing grounds for policy ideas, pushing boundaries and advocating positions that major parties might initially consider too radical or risky. Over time, successful ideas migrate from the margins to the mainstream.

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