Personality Types (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Personality Types
Introduction to individual differences in stress
While scientific research focuses on commonalities between people, humans differ considerably in their inherited traits and learned experiences. Personality represents one of the most important individual differences, and research demonstrates that how people perceive and respond to stressful situations can be attributed partly to differences in personality.
Psychologists use the term personality types to describe general categorisations that group people sharing similar characteristics. This concept helps researchers understand how different individuals respond to stress and develop stress-related conditions.
Much stress research has concentrated on people categorised as having Type A personality, though Types B, C and D have also been identified and investigated, alongside the concept of hardiness. Researchers are particularly interested in exploring connections between specific personality types and different forms of stress-related illnesses.
Types A and B personality
Type A personality characteristics
Friedman and Rosenman (1959) became interested in understanding how non-physiological factors influenced coronary heart disease (CHD), particularly examining individual differences in how men dealt with stressful situations. They discovered that a specific behavioural pattern, which they termed Type A personality, was linked to increased risk of developing heart disease.
Type A personality is characterised by several key traits:
- Time urgent/impatient behaviour - individuals who multitask constantly, set strict deadlines for themselves, and have low boredom tolerance
- Excessive competitiveness - people who are achievement-orientated and aggressive in their approach
- Generalised hostility/aggressiveness - those who are easily irritated or provoked, display volatile behaviour, and show self-anger
Additional Type A characteristics include insecurity about status and a strong need for peer admiration to feel good about themselves. This personality type is associated with heightened risk of hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
Type B personality characteristics
The researchers simultaneously identified Type B personality as essentially the opposite of Type A. Type B individuals possess the same level of ambition but approach life in a steady, non-competitive manner. They are much more self-confident, relaxed and easy-going, not driven to achieve perfection and significantly less hostile.
Such individuals experience no difficulty relaxing or doing nothing - something Type A personalities could never manage. Type B personalities are associated with lower stress levels and consequently better health outcomes.
Research evidence for Types A and B
Friedman and Rosenman (1974) study
The researchers conducted a comprehensive assessment of personality types in over 3,500 healthy middle-aged men as part of a 12-year longitudinal investigation. Participants completed questionnaires measuring impatience, competitiveness, motivation for success, frustration when goals were hindered, and feelings about being under pressure.
Research Finding: Type A vs Type B Health Outcomes
Method: 3,500 healthy middle-aged men assessed over 12 years Classification: High scorers = Type A personalities, Low scorers = Type B personalities
Key Result: Twice as many Type A personalities developed cardiovascular disorders compared to Type B personalities, suggesting that personality traits represent a risk factor for developing stress-related illness.
Significance: This demonstrated that psychological factors can have physiological effects, with the harmful physical effects of stressors being mediated through psychological personality factors.
Supporting research
Matthews and Haynes (1986) discovered that coronary heart disease was most strongly associated with the hostility trait of Type A men, especially those expressing high levels of hostility. This supported Friedman and Rosenman's findings and identified hostility as the key trait related to CHD.
Hayes (2000) examined specific components and behaviours of Type A personality, finding that certain characteristics correlated more strongly with particular forms of cardiovascular disorder. For instance, angina sufferers were typically Type A personalities who were impatient with others and susceptible to feeling pressure at work, while those with heart failure tended to have hasty personal habits and schedules.
Forshaw (2002) supported Matthews and Haynes' findings, determining that the Type A characteristic of hostility was the best single predictor of CHD and superior to Type A personality as a whole. This suggests that specific traits within Type A personality, rather than the entire personality type, increase the risk of developing stress-related illness.
Evaluation of Type A and B research
Strengths:
- Miller et al. (1996) reviewed several studies, confirming the original results and supporting the validity of the Type A concept
- The research has practical applications in identifying individuals at risk of cardiovascular disease
Limitations:
- Some researchers have failed to replicate Friedman and Rosenman's (1974) findings, suggesting the relationship may not be as straightforward as initially proposed
- Not all lifestyle aspects were controlled in the original study, meaning other factors like hardiness might affect vulnerability to heart disease
- The risk is only relative - the vast majority of Type A individuals do not develop CHD, while some Type B personalities do
- Ragland and Brand (1988) found that only 15% of Friedman and Rosenman's original sample had died of CHD, with age, high blood pressure and smoking proving more significant factors, providing little evidence of Type A personality being a major risk factor
Types C and D personality
Type C personality
Type C personality is characterised by suppression of negative emotions and includes individuals who are introverted, sensitive, thoughtful and inclined towards perfectionism. They take everything seriously, work extremely hard, are conformist and thorough in all activities, and exceptionally dependable.
However, because Type C individuals tend not to express their emotions, are unassertive and try to please others even when it upsets themselves, they become easily stressed and prone to developing certain cancers, depression and illnesses associated with immunosuppression.
Type D personality
Type D personality describes individuals who prefer routine and dislike change. They shun responsibility, are highly obedient and prone to worry and becoming irritable. Because they lack self-assurance and fear rejection, they tend not to express their negative emotions and therefore become very stressed, making them prone to cardiovascular diseases. Research suggests that up to 53% of cardiac patients may have Type D personality.
Research evidence for Types C and D
Type C research
Morris et al. (1981) found that Type C women suppress their emotions when stressed and are more likely to develop cancer. This was believed to result from emotional suppression leading to lowered immune system effectiveness.
Greer and Morris (1975) supported this by finding that women diagnosed with breast cancer showed significantly more emotional suppression than those with other, non-life-threatening breast diseases.
Temoshok (1987) also discovered that Type C personalities were cancer-prone, with such individuals having difficulty expressing emotion and suppressing emotions, especially negative ones like anger.
Type D research
Research Finding: Type D Personality and Cardiac Risk
Denollet et al. (1996): Found that up to 53% of cardiac patients display Type D personality
Denollet et al. (1998): Found Type D associated with a four-fold increased risk of sudden cardiac death, independent of traditional risk factors such as heavy smoking
Schiffer et al. (2010): Reviewed evidence from 6,000 cardiac disorder patients across 49 studies, finding a three-fold increase for Type D heart patients in risk of future cardiovascular diseases, such as peripheral artery disease, angioplasty or bypass procedures, heart failure, heart transplantation, heart attack or death.
Hardiness
Hardiness represents a healthy personality type that provides protection against stress-related disorders. Kobasa (1979) studied managers with stressful jobs in a company for three years, concentrating on identifying characteristics that distinguished those who became ill from those who did not.
She proposed the hardy personality type, which involves three key components:
- Commitment - individuals who are dedicated to what they are doing and possess a sense of self and purpose
- Control - individuals who feel a sense of personal control over what they are doing
- Challenge - individuals who see change as expected and normal, perceiving stressors as challenges to be mastered
Hardy personality type is associated with lowered physiological arousal in the presence of stressors, leading to reduced stress-related disorders. For this reason, hardiness training has been developed as a form of stress management.
Research evidence for hardiness
Kobasa (1979) measured stress levels in 800 business executives using the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), finding that individuals with equal stress levels had different illness levels. This suggested that some people possessed hardy personalities that afforded them protection against the effects of stress.
Research Finding: Components of Hardiness
Further investigation revealed that individuals with high stress and low illness levels scored highly on control, commitment and challenge, suggesting these characteristics are the important components of hardiness.
This also implies that if people can be trained to be hardy, they will cope better with stress.
Key Points to Remember:
- Type A personalities are characterised by time urgency, competitiveness and hostility, making them more vulnerable to cardiovascular disease
- Type B personalities are relaxed, non-competitive and self-confident, showing better stress resilience and health outcomes
- Type C personalities suppress emotions and are prone to cancer, whilst Type D personalities are distressed and vulnerable to heart disease
- Hardiness consists of three components - commitment, control and challenge - which provide protection against stress-related illness
- Research consistently shows that specific personality traits, rather than entire personality types, may be the key factors in determining stress vulnerability