Theories of Science (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Theories of Science
This topic examines different perspectives on the nature of science and its relationship to other belief systems, exploring debates about objectivity, methodology, and social influence.
The traditional view of science
The traditional view holds that science is fundamentally different from other ways of understanding the world, particularly religion. This perspective emphasises that science is objective and evidence-based.
Key characteristics of traditional science include:
- Objectivity - Scientists remain neutral and unbiased in their research
- Evidence-based enquiry - Conclusions derive from empirical evidence rather than preconceived ideas
- Open testing - Ideas undergo rigorous testing, with inaccurate theories rejected and replaced by more accurate ones
Critics argue this creates a clear distinction between science (based on theories supported by evidence) and religion (based on interpretation of religious texts and holy books). When evidence contradicts religious beliefs, traditional scientists argue the evidence should be accepted as correct rather than the religious text.
Challenges to the traditional view
Michael E. Lynch questioned whether science is truly objective. His research revealed that scientists are more influenced by their existing theoretical frameworks than commonly believed.
Research Example: Lynch's Laboratory Study (1985)
Lynch examined interactions between scientists conducting laboratory experiments on rats. He discovered that when unexpected results occurred, scientists often attributed these to experimental errors rather than considering them as evidence for new theories.
This suggests scientists may be less neutral than the traditional view claims.
Science as a belief system
Polanyi (1958) argued that science functions as a belief system similar to religion, comprising three key factors that challenge the notion of scientific objectivity.
Circularity of beliefs
Each scientific idea connects to and supports others within the system. When one element faces challenge, scientists defend it by referencing other parts of the belief system, preventing fundamental change.
Supporting explanations for contradictory evidence
When evidence appears to contradict scientific theories, scientists create explanations to maintain their beliefs rather than abandoning them. This mirrors Lynch's observations about experimental anomalies.
No alternative belief systems tolerated
Science demands complete acceptance and rejects competing explanations. This sweeping rejection of alternative viewpoints resembles religious orthodoxy.
Postmodernist perspectives
Lyotard (1984) described science as another metanarrative - a grand theory claiming to explain everything. He argued that science functions as an ideology that maintains a monopoly of truth. Some Marxist and feminist scholars suggest scientific knowledge reinforces capitalist and patriarchal power structures.
Positivist approaches to sociology
Positivists like Comte believed sociology could become truly scientific by adopting natural science methods. They focused on systematic approaches to understanding social phenomena.
Core positivist methods:
- Gathering quantitative data about social phenomena
- Classifying information and identifying patterns
- Drawing conclusions about social laws governing human behaviour
Durkheim exemplified this approach through multivariate analysis, attempting to isolate the impact of independent variables (causal factors) on dependent variables (outcomes).
Worked Example: Durkheim's Educational Research
Durkheim studied how material deprivation and teacher labelling (independent variables) affected working-class educational achievement (dependent variable).
This demonstrated the positivist approach of isolating specific causal relationships in social phenomena.
The inductive approach
Early positivists employed an inductive approach that followed a systematic methodology for developing social theories.
The inductive method steps:
- Collect data on chosen topics
- Study and analyse the information
- Develop theories or hypotheses
- Test hypotheses through further research
- If results prove repeatable, establish social facts
Popper's deductive approach and falsification
Karl Popper (1959) challenged positivist methodology, arguing scientists should use a deductive approach combined with falsification. This represented a significant shift in thinking about scientific methodology.
The deductive method
Unlike inductive reasoning, deductive approaches fundamentally change how research is conducted.
Deductive approach characteristics:
- Begin with theoretical hypotheses
- Design investigations to test these theories
- Focus on attempting to disprove rather than prove theories
Falsification principle
Popper argued that permanent social laws cannot exist since any theory might eventually be proven wrong. This principle becomes central to distinguishing scientific from non-scientific claims.
Worked Example: The Swan Hypothesis
Popper famously used the example "all swans are white" - this hypothesis remained unchallenged until black swans were discovered.
This demonstrates how a single contradictory case can falsify an entire theory, no matter how much supporting evidence previously existed.
Falsification distinguishes science from other belief systems because scientific theories can potentially be proven wrong, whereas religious or supernatural beliefs often cannot be tested in this way.
Social context and scientific theories
Roger Gomm (1982) emphasised that scientific work must be understood within its social context. Scientists operate within specific historical and cultural circumstances that influence their theoretical development.
Case Study: Darwin's Theory of Evolution
Gomm argued that Darwin's concepts of natural selection and competitive struggle reflected Victorian capitalist ideology rather than purely objective observation.
The theory aligned with contemporary beliefs about:
- Free-market economics
- Individualism
- Minimal welfare provision
This demonstrates how scientific theories can reflect the social values of their time period.
This demonstrates how science functions as a social construct - it is researched, developed, and interpreted by people influenced by existing social values and power structures.
Kuhn's paradigm theory
Thomas Kuhn (1962) fundamentally challenged scientific objectivity through his concept of paradigms. His work represents one of the most influential critiques of traditional scientific thinking.
What is a paradigm?
A paradigm represents the framework of accepted ideas within which scientists operate. This includes dominant theories, methodologies, and assumptions that guide research within specific time periods.
How paradigms work
Scientists working within established paradigms tend to seek evidence supporting existing theories rather than challenging them. This continues until anomalies (unexplainable findings) accumulate sufficiently to trigger a paradigm shift or scientific revolution.
When paradigm shifts occur, entirely new frameworks emerge, fundamentally changing how scientists understand their field. This cyclical process demonstrates that science progresses through revolutionary changes rather than steady accumulation of objective knowledge.
Key Points to Remember:
- The traditional view presents science as objective and evidence-based, but this perspective faces significant challenges from sociologists
- Science can be analysed as a belief system with similar characteristics to religion, including circularity and resistance to alternative explanations
- Positivists believe sociology can become scientific through quantitative methods and the inductive approach
- Popper's falsification principle emphasises attempting to disprove theories rather than proving them, using a deductive approach
- Social context significantly influences scientific development, as demonstrated by Darwin's theories reflecting Victorian capitalist values
- Kuhn's paradigms show that science progresses through revolutionary shifts rather than objective accumulation of knowledge