NGOs and International Bodies (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
NGOs and International Bodies
Non-governmental organisations and their development role
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are private organisations that operate independently from government control, both economically and politically. They play an important role in global development through various activities ranging from emergency response to long-term development projects.
NGOs represent a crucial bridge between government action and grassroots community needs, often filling gaps where traditional governmental approaches may be less effective or politically constrained.
Evolution of NGO involvement
NGOs have evolved through four distinct stages of involvement in development work:
- Relief and aid - Providing food programmes and urgent medical care during crises
- Community development - Establishing community health centres and education facilities
- Systems development - Collaborating with governments and private businesses on larger projects
- People's movements - Supporting locally managed development initiatives
From emergency response to sustainable development
Traditionally, NGOs and charities like Oxfam, Save the Children, and the Red Cross focused primarily on responding to emergencies such as the 1984 Ethiopian famine, the 2004 South-East Asian tsunami, and refugee crises in Syria. However, there has been a shift towards addressing long-term development needs.
Emergency relief remains important for addressing immediate damage and saving lives, but NGOs now recognise that sustainable development requires long-term planning strategies. This approach helps tackle the root causes of poverty rather than just treating symptoms.
Case Study: Emergency Response Evolution
The 2004 South-East Asian tsunami demonstrated how NGOs adapted their approach:
- Immediate response: Emergency food, water, and medical aid
- Medium-term: Temporary housing and community infrastructure rebuilding
- Long-term: Disaster preparedness training and sustainable coastal development planning
This evolution shows how modern NGOs integrate emergency response with sustainable development planning.
Growth in NGO activity
The number and influence of NGOs has expanded dramatically over the past 50 years. Robbins (2005) identifies several reasons for this growth:
- Improved communications - The internet has made it easier for NGOs to organise campaigns, share information and coordinate activities
- Enhanced public awareness - Extensive media coverage has increased public understanding of global development issues and crises
- Increased funding - Some governments have boosted funding to NGOs as an alternative to direct state intervention, influenced by neo-liberal beliefs in private sector effectiveness
This dramatic expansion reflects changing attitudes towards development work, with increasing recognition that effective development requires diverse approaches beyond traditional government-to-government aid.
Advantages of NGOs over government action
In many situations, NGOs can be more effective than government agencies in promoting development:
Political independence and flexibility
NGOs don't face the same political constraints as governments, making them less susceptible to corruption. They can focus on development needs without being influenced by political motivations or electoral considerations.
Local expertise and networks
Many NGOs have developed strong networks and expertise in specific regions or issues. They often work closely with local people and understand community needs better than distant government bureaucracies.
Responsive and adaptable approach
NGOs can respond quickly to local issues and adapt their methods as needed. Their flexibility allows them to choose appropriate local organisations as partners and adjust programmes based on what works best in specific contexts.
International lending organisations
International Monetary Fund structure and purpose
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) comprises 188 member countries and provides loans to nations experiencing financial difficulties. It also offers advice to governments on handling financial problems and managing their economies.
World Bank development role
The World Bank provides grants and loans specifically to help developing countries build infrastructure such as roads, electricity networks, and telephone systems. It also works to reduce debt problems and advises Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) on economic growth strategies.
Conditions attached to financial assistance
Countries seeking loans from these international organisations must accept certain conditions. Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) were introduced by the World Bank and IMF in the early 1980s, combining financial aid with requirements based on free-market economic principles.
Understanding SAPs is crucial because they represent one of the most controversial aspects of international development finance, with significant impacts on millions of people in developing countries.
These conditions typically include:
- Deregulation - Removing restrictions on private-sector business and foreign investment
- Privatisation - Selling state-owned industries to private companies
- Currency devaluation - Reducing currency value to encourage foreign investment
- Spending restrictions - Limiting government expenditure on education and health services
- Export orientation - Focusing economic production on export markets rather than domestic needs
Since 1999, SAPs have been partially replaced by Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), which are documents agreed between the IMF and World Bank that outline a country's social and economic strategy, with greater emphasis on local ownership of development policies.
Criticisms of Structural Adjustment Programmes
Hong (2000) conducted research arguing that SAPs have had negative impacts on LEDCs:
Critical Problems with SAPs
Research consistently shows that Structural Adjustment Programmes have created significant hardships for the world's poorest populations, often worsening the very problems they were designed to solve.
Economic and social problems
- Increased poverty resulting from low wages and regressive taxation that affects the poor more severely than the wealthy
- Poor social conditions caused by reduced funding for state health and social care services, worsened by low pay and inadequate working conditions due to limited regulation
Environmental and political issues
- Corruption - Reduced regulation has created opportunities for corrupt practices to flourish
- Environmental damage - Focus on export production has led to harmful practices like monoculture farming and deforestation, increasing carbon emissions
- Social unrest - The combination of grinding poverty and lack of services has caused serious upheaval, as seen in Sierra Leone during the 1990s
Positive contributions of international organisations
Despite criticisms, international organisations have achieved some notable successes in supporting global development.
Debt relief initiatives
Not all international organisation activities are controversial. In 2005, the G8 (representing eight of the world's richest countries) wrote off the debts of 18 of the poorest developing countries, providing significant financial relief.
Health improvements
Dalmiya and Schultink (2003) found that the World Health Organisation - the UN section dealing with public health matters - has successfully reduced disease rates and improved nutrition in the developing world.
These positive examples demonstrate that international organisations can be effective when their programmes are well-designed and appropriately targeted to address specific development challenges.
Transnational corporations in development
Transnational corporations (TNCs) are large businesses operating across multiple countries, some of which are wealthier than many nation states. Their impact on LEDCs can be both positive and negative.
Problematic practices
TNCs have been criticised for several harmful practices:
- Exploiting cheap labour by paying very low wages for long working hours in unregulated markets
- Price manipulation - driving down prices paid to producers in LEDCs, then profiteering when selling to consumers in developed countries
- Environmental damage through various business practices
Potential benefits
However, Contreras (1987) suggests that TNC activity can bring important benefits to developing countries:
- Increased tax revenue - governments can use this income for health and education improvements
- Technology transfer - advanced technology introduced by TNCs can serve as a catalyst for broader economic growth
- Employment opportunities - TNCs create jobs and provide income for local workers
- Skills development - the need for skilled workers encourages improvements in education and training systems
The debate over TNCs highlights the complexity of global development, where the same actors can simultaneously create problems and provide solutions depending on how their activities are managed and regulated.
Key Points to Remember:
- NGOs have evolved from emergency aid providers to long-term development partners, working through four stages from relief to people's movements
- NGOs often outperform governments in development work due to their political independence, local expertise, and operational flexibility
- International lending organisations like the IMF and World Bank provide crucial funding but attach controversial conditions through SAPs that critics argue increase poverty and social problems
- Some international initiatives like G8 debt relief and WHO health programmes have achieved positive results in supporting developing countries
- Transnational corporations have mixed impacts - while they can exploit workers and damage environments, they also bring investment, technology, and employment opportunities to developing nations