Theories of Globalisation (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Theories of Globalisation
Globalisation involves the increasing interconnectedness of countries through economic, political, and cultural links. Several theories attempt to explain how this process works and its effects on different nations and societies.
World systems theory
World Systems Theory was developed by Wallerstein in 1974 and presents globalisation as creating a single worldwide economic system rather than separate national economies.
The three-tier system
The Three-Tier Global System
This theory divides the world into three categories of countries that have fundamentally different relationships to the global economy:
-
Core countries (such as South Africa, Mexico, and Ethiopia) have developed economies and make full use of the worldwide economic system. These nations can affect any other country through their global reach and benefit most from capitalism.
-
Semi-periphery countries occupy a middle position - they are exploited by core countries but also exploit periphery countries. They serve as exploiters and exploited simultaneously.
-
Periphery countries are the most exploited nations in the system. They are not fully integrated and have limited power to change their position within the global system.
Evaluation of world systems theory
The theory faces criticism for being overly deterministic - it suggests countries cannot easily change their position in the global hierarchy and doesn't account for individual countries' unique characteristics and development paths.
Economic globalisation and the global economy
Technological transformation
Giddens (1990) identified how technological change has revolutionised global living. Modern communication systems and travel networks allow goods to be transported worldwide, whilst information can be transferred across the globe instantaneously.
The role of transnational corporations
Transnational Corporations (TNCs) operate across national boundaries and are central to economic globalisation. They typically locate their headquarters in More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) whilst establishing production facilities in countries with cheaper labour costs to maximise profits.
International division of labour
Fröbel and colleagues (1980) introduced the concept of 'new international division of labour'. This describes how manufacturing activities are increasingly located in developing countries, whilst knowledge-intensive work remains concentrated in MEDCs. This international division of labour means different stages of production occur in different countries - the car industry exemplifies this trend.
Effects of TNCs on development
TNCs can have both positive and negative effects on developing countries:
Positive effects of TNCs:
- Bring jobs and investment to developing countries
- Support national development strategies
- Provide cheaper consumer goods internationally
- Create global markets for manufactured goods
Negative effects of TNCs:
- Neo-Marxist critics argue this creates a new form of exploitation
- Developing world populations become 'wage slaves' within the capitalist system
- TNCs can influence local cultures and business practices
- May replace traditional economic structures
Ritzer's McDonaldisation theory
Weberian sociologist Ritzer (1993) developed the concept of McDonaldisation to explain global standardisation. He argues that production worldwide increasingly follows the same principles as fast food outlets.
The Four Characteristics of McDonaldisation
McDonaldisation involves four key characteristics that can be observed across global production:
- Efficiency - emphasis on speed rather than quality
- Calculability - focus on quantity and measurement
- Predictability - standardised products across all locations
- Control - replacement of human workers with machines
This process means products are inexpensive to manufacture and standardised globally - a Big Mac tastes identical everywhere it's sold.
Political globalisation
International politics
Politics increasingly operates at an international level rather than purely national level. Several developments demonstrate this trend:
- The United Nations enforces international law and coordinates peacekeeping operations
- International political cooperation has increased, exemplified by organisations like the European Union
- International non-governmental organisations (NGOs) coordinate aid and campaigning across borders
Cultural globalisation
Spread of cultural goods
The growth in international media communication has enabled cultures that were once geographically isolated to become international and global. This process is termed cultural globalisation. British and American popular music reaches worldwide audiences, whilst American and Indian films achieve international distribution.
Cultural hybridisation versus cultural imperialism
Postmodernists argue that cultural globalisation allows people to access a plurality of cultures, leading to cultural hybridisation - a mixture of different cultural influences rather than one culture being imposed over another.
They view cultural globalisation as a two-way process where Western culture spreads to new societies, whilst other identities and cultures are transmitted to societies in MEDCs. The increase in Bollywood film screenings in Western cinemas illustrates this exchange.
Criticisms of cultural globalisation
Cultural Imperialism Concerns
Critics highlight serious concerns about cultural imperialism:
- Cultural goods production is concentrated among a few large TNCs with considerable power in developing countries
- These corporations may replace traditional culture with Western culture to create new markets for Western cultural products
- This process could lead to the dominance of Western values and practices globally
Global organisations versus governments
Power of global organisations
Some theorists argue that global organisations have become more powerful than governments:
- TNCs operate across many countries and possess global reach
- Many TNCs rival nation states in economic terms
- Critics suggest TNCs show little respect for local cultures
- National governments struggle to control TNCs and are reluctant to act against their interests
- International political agencies like the United Nations and European Union have acquired power and decision-making authority previously held by national governments
- This may reduce nation states' ability to determine their own futures
Transnational capitalism
Leslie Sklair (2000) describes globalisation as transnational capitalism - capitalism that crosses national boundaries. He suggests that analysing individual nation states is less meaningful because power now rests with TNCs, bureaucrats, and global media organisations.
The continuing importance of nation states
Evidence for national importance
Despite globalisation theories, substantial evidence suggests nations remain highly important:
Evidence for Continued National Importance
Realists emphasise that national interest continues to determine most policies within nations and international negotiations. The US rejected the Kyoto Protocol partly due to concerns about potential effects on American employment, demonstrating how national concerns override international agreements.
National identity and devolution
Hall (1995) argues that in a globalised world, national identity becomes increasingly important as people seek to maintain differences between countries. This can actually strengthen nation states rather than weaken them.
Evidence for continued national importance includes:
- Increasing fears about losing power to international bodies like the EU have strengthened national sovereignty movements
- Devolution trends show power being transferred to local bodies, as seen with the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly
- Nations within larger states (like Scotland and Wales within the UK) have reasserted their identity and gained control over key policies
Key Points to Remember:
-
World Systems Theory divides countries into core, semi-periphery, and periphery based on their economic position in the global system
-
TNCs drive economic globalisation by operating across borders, creating international division of labour, and establishing global markets
-
McDonaldisation describes how global production follows standardised, efficient processes similar to fast food chains
-
Cultural globalisation can lead to either cultural hybridisation (mixing of cultures) or cultural imperialism (domination by Western culture)
-
Despite globalisation, nation states retain importance through national identity, devolution movements, and control over domestic policies